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MfSKl'M  OF  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON,  MAP: 


ART 


EDUCATION, 


SCHOLASTIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL. 


BY 


WALTER  SMITH, 

ART  MASTER,  LONDON  \ LATE  HEAD  MASTER  OF  THE  LEEDS  SCHOOL  OF  ART  AND 
SCIENCE  AND  TRAINING  SCHOOL  FOR  ART  TEACHERS  I NOW  PROFESSOR  OF 
ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  CITY  OF  BOSTON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  ART, 

AND  STATE  DIRECTOR  OF  ART  EDUCATION,  MASSACHUSETTS. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


BOSTON  : 

JAMES  R.  OSGOOD  AND  COMPANY, 

(LATE  TICKNOR  & FIELDS,  AND  FIELDS.  OSGOOD,  & CO.) 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  iSja, 

Bv  JAMES  R.  OSGOOD  & CO., 

In  the  Ofiice  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Boston : 

Stereotyped  and  Printed  by  Band,  A very,  Co . 


TO 


THE  HON.  JOHN  A.  LOWELL, 

OF  BOSTON, 

THIS  BOOK, 

WHICH  RESULTED  FROM  A COURSE  OF  LECTURES  INITIATED  BY  HIM, 


IS  RESPECTFULLLY  DEDICATED. 


INTRODUCTION. 


HOUGH  introductions  have  long  since  come  to  be  re- 


garded as  impertinences,  and  prefaces  abandoned  as 
unnecessary,  I feel  that  some  sort  of  general  statement  is  due 
from  me,  when  offering  to  the  public  a work  of  such  a dis- 
tinctly two-fold  character  as  this,  in  one  volume. 

The  time  has  come,  which  has  been  so  long  looked  for,  when 
this  country,  prosperous,  and  developing  beyond  all  precedent, 
has  sought  in  art  the  enjoyment  and  refinement  which  trade 
and  commerce  alone  cannot  give.  The  movement  in  favor  of 
art  education  in  Massachusetts  is  distinctly  traceable  to  the 
influence  of  a few  men,  who,  from  European  experience,  saw 
that  their  country  and  State  were  behind  the  times  in  the  pro- 
motion of  art ; that  this  materially  affected  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  nation,  and  its  character  as  an  educated  peo- 
ple ; whilst  the  natural  progress  of  manufactures,  and ' the 
accumulation  of  wealth  by  the  people,  required  increased  skill 
in  the  workmen,  and  the  varied  opportunities  of  art  education 
generally.  The  effect  of  delaying  practical  movements  to 
insure  instruction  in  art  for  so  long  a time  has  been,  that,  now 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


it  is  being  taken  up,  the  demand  for  information  concerning 
all  phases  of  the  subject  is  great  and  continuous.  In  the  first 
section  of  this  work,  I have  endeavored  to  give  such  practical 
information  about  schools  of  art  and  art  teaching  as  I have 
learnt  by  experience  is  now  required.  In  the  second  part,  on 
the  more  general  question  of  industrial  art  education,  I have 
tried  to  enunciate  general  principles,  which,  when  made  pos- 
sible by  the  development  of  art  skill,  may  control  the  motive 
or  character  of  the  manufactures  of  the  country.  Public 
opinion  directs  the  workshop ; and  it  is  to  that  I have 
appealed:  the  unskilled  workman  seeks  skill  in  art  schools; 
and  I have  aimed  to  make  them  practicable,  and  adapted  to 
the  wants  and  circumstances  of  this  country. 

I have  to  acknowledge  the  help  received  from  the  pages 
of  “ The  London  Builder  ” and  Mr.  Eastlake’s  book  on 
“Household  Taste”  in  the  matter  of  illustrations,  and  hope 
at  some  future  time  to  increase  their  number,  so  that  every 
distinct  branch  of  industrial  art  may  be  represented. 


City  Point.  Poston,  August,  1S72. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE. 

General  Review 

CHAPTER  II. 

Art  Teaching  in  Public  Schools 40 

CHAPTER  III. 

Schools  of  Art  and  Industrial  Drawing 75 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Methods  of  Industrial  Art  Study,  — French,  English,  and  German  . 121 

CHAPTER  V. 

Conduct  and  Management  of  Schools  of  Art 144 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Ornamental  Design  in  Form  and  Color 173 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Surface  Decoration 192 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Relief  Ornament,  — Modelling  and  Carving.  Pottery,  Glass,  and 


Terra-Cotta 


VII' 


220 


CONTENTS. 


viii 

CHAPTER  IX. 

PACE. 

Casting  and  Casts 244 

CHAPTER  X. 

Architectural  Enrichments 259 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Symbolism  in  Art  and  Architecture . 283 

CHAPTER  XI L 

Prospect  and  Retrospect ...  295 

I 


APPENDIX  I. 

Flat  Examples,  Models,  and  Books 327 

APPENDIX  II. 

Casts  of  Figure,  Ornament,  and  from  Nature 330 

APPENDIX  III. 

Examination  Papers 356 

APPENDIX  IV. 


Programmes  of  Schools  of  Art 


361 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


[F or  Mechanical  reasons  the  Plates  are  placed  at  regular  intervals  throughout  the  iuork  ; 
but  the  figures  given  herewith  will  guide  in  referring  to  them .] 

Referred  to 
on  pose 

1.  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  Mass.  Elevation.  Frontispiece  . 119 

2.  Design  for  a Fine-Arts  Institute.  Walter  Smith.  Elevation 


and  plans  . 

3.  Nottingham  School  of  Art. 

A “ <<  << 

4- 

5.  Birkenhead  “ “ 

6.  Coventry  “ 

7. 


Elevation  and  section 
Plans 

Elevation  and  plans  . 

“ “ section 

Ground-plan  and  transverse  section 


8.  Stoke-upon-Trent  School  of  Art.  (Minton  Memorial.) 

9.  Burslem  School  of  Art.  (Wedgewood  Memorial.)  Elevation 

10.  “ “ “ “ “ Sections  and 


86 

87 

87 

87 

88 
88 
89 
89 


plan 89 

11.  Design  for  a School  of  Art.  W.  H.  Crossland  . . . .90 

12.  Design  for  a School  of  Art.  J.  H.  Sturgis  and  Charles 

Brigham 91,  147 

13.  Design  for  a School  of  Art.  J.  H.  Sturgis  and  Charles 


Brigham 91 

14.  Building  for  the  Sheepshanks  Collection,  Brompton,  London,  93, 105, 106 

15.  Plan  of  Lecture-Room.  Walter  Smith 97 

16.  Plan  of  Mechanical  and  Architectural  Room,  &c.  Walter 

Smith 99 

\ 

17.  Plan  of  Elementary  Room,  &c.  Walter  Smith  . . . 100 

18.  Desk  recommended  for  Drawing-Schools  .....  105 

19.  Fittings  for  a School  of  Art.  Walter  Smith  . . 105  et  seq. 

20.  Drawing-room  from  models  and  objects,  Cooper  Institute,  New- 

York  City  . . . . . . . . . . .110 

ix 


X 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Referred  tc 
oa  page 


21.  National  Academy  of  Design,  New-York  City 

22.  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  Mass  . 

23.  Worcester-County  Free  Institute  of  Industrial  Science  . 

24.  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  Mass.  Ground-floor  plan 

25.  “ “ “ “ “ Second-floor  plan 

26.  South-Kensington  Museum,  London.  Ground  plan  . 

27.  Scale  of  Colors 

2S.  Specimens  of  Modern  Venetian  Table-Glass 

29.  ) 

> Examples  of  Modern  Parquetry  Floors  . 

3°-  -> 

31.  Hall  Chair  at  Cothelc,  Devon,  England 

32.  Ancient  Sofa  at  Knole,  England 

33.  Ancient  Settee  at  Knole,  England  .... 

34.  Ancient  Arm-Chair  at  Knole,  England 

35.  Modern  Greek  Toilet-Ware 

36.  South-Kensington  Museum.  Entrance 

3J.  I 
33. 

]-  Examples  of  Encaustic  Pile  Ilall-Pavcmcnts  . 

39- 

40.  J 


• ii3 

• **3 
. 114 
. 1 19 
. 119 

• >33 
. 181 
. 1S6 

. 19S 

• 231 
. 232 

• 232 

• 232 
. 238 

133.241 


. 2 \2 


NOTE. 


The  colored  plates  numbered  XIV.  and  XV.  should  read  29  and  30, 
and  those  numbered  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.,  and  IX.  should  be  37,  38,  39,  and 
40  respectively. 


Classified  List  of  Illustrations. 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART, — ENGLISH. 

Plates. 

Nottingham  School  . . . . . . . . . . 3, 4 

Birkenhead  School 5 

Coventry  School 6,  7 

Stoke-upon-Trent  School.  (Minton  Memorial.)  ....  8 

Burslem  School.  (Wedgewood  Memorial.)  . . . . 9,  10 

Sheepshanks  Gallery 14 

South-Kensington  Museum 26,  36 

SCHOOLS  OF  ART,  — AMERICAN. 

Cooper  Institute  (Object  Drawing-room),  New  York  . . . .20 

National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York  ......  21 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston  . . . . .23 

Worcester  School  of  Design  ........  23 

Boston  Art-Museum 1,  24,  25 


DESIGNS  FOR  SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


Design  by  W.  H.  Crossland  . . . . . . . .11 

“ “ Sturgis  and  Brigham  . . . . . . . .12 

“ “ “ “ 13 

“ “ Walter  Smith  . . . . . . 2,15,  16,  17,  19 

“ (Fittings)  Recommended  for  Schools 18 


FURNITURE,  POTTERY,  &c 


Venetian  Glass.  (Modern.)  '....... 

Chair  at  Cothele,  England.  (Antique  )..... 

Furniture  at  Knole,  England.  (Antique.)  ....  32, 

Greek  Toilet-Ware.  (Modern.)  ....... 


. 28 

• 31 

33>  34 

• 35 


COLORED  PLATES. 

27 

29, 30 

37.38.39-40 


Scale  of  Colors 
Parquetry 
Encaustic  Tiles 


xi 


ART  EDUCATION. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


HE  subject  of  Art  Education  has,  during  the  last 


quarter  of  a century,  become  a question  of  some 
importance, — both  because  its  neglect,  or  imperfect  real- 
ization, previously  had  allowed  valuable  human  faculties 
to  remain  undeveloped,  whilst  the  improvement  of  gen- 
eral education  produced  a consciousness  of  the  defi- 
ciency ; and  because  the  fruitfulness  of  modern  discov- 
eries in  science,  by  which  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of 
the  human  race  have  been  advanced,  has  drawn  attention 
to  the  possibility  of  deriving  corresponding  benefits  from 
its  sister  subject,  Art.  Education  of  the  past  is  open  to 
tire  charge  of  having  concerned  itself  very  much  about 
what  men  in  distant  ages,  and.  with  limited  perceptions, 
have  said  and  written  and  done  with  reference  to  the 
earth  they  inhabited,  the  beliefs  they  held,  and  the 
passing  circumstances  which  surrounded  them ; and  to 
have  concerned  itself  very  little  with  unfolding  to  liv- 
ing men  the  practical  value  of  physical  laws  which 
affect  them  day  by  day,  or  endeavored  to  open  up  the 
capabilities  we  have  for  “ conquering  the  earth,  and  sub- 


ART  ED UCATI ON 


cluing  it ; ” to  have  accepted  as  an  all-important  mission 
the  display  of  the  literature,  or  explanation  of  the  pre- 
cise theological  dogmas  or  political  creeds,  of  eminently 
respectable  persons  who  arrayed  themselves  in  togas, 
wore  sandals,  and  believed  in  mythological  creations 
called  gods,  and  that  the  sun  moved  round  the  earth 
every  four  and  twenty  hours;  whilst  it  might  have  been 
more  profitably  engaged  in  furnishing  means  for  dis- 
covering the  application  of  natural  laws,  by  which  liv- 
ing men  might  live  acceptably,  tearing  from  their  minds 
the  fables  and  puerilities  that  kept  them  under  mental 
subjection,  and  which  limited  their  intellectual  and  moral 
growth,  as  well  as  their  conquest  and  subjection  of  the 
earth  and  its  hidden  forces.  What  may  be  described  as 
practical  education,  which  fits  a man  to  be  self-possessed 
and  master  of  the  situation  twelve  working  hours  of 
the  twenty-four  that  he  lives  each  day,  has,  to  state  it 
moderately,  not  been  the  prime  object  in  universities  or 
schools  in  their  production  of  working-men,  of  all  ranks  ; 
so  that,  whilst  the  pious  bequests  and  patriotic  endow- 
ments of  centuries  have  been  used  educationally  to  pro- 
duce generations,  and  thousands  of  men  who  have  “ sung 
the  same  sad  song”  as  their  predecessors,  it  is  to  others, 
outside  the  universities,  who  have  been  brought  vio- 
lently  into  contact  with  ever-present  necessities,  that  we 
owe  most  of  the  advantages  of  existence  in  this  century, 
and  many  of  its  most  cherished  privileges. 

Far  be  it  from  me  to  express  one  word  of  disrespect 
towards  any  branch  of  intellectual  education  : it  would 
be  a misrepresentation  of  the  love  1 bear  to  every  kind 
of  mental  culture  if  that  impression  were  conveyed 
by  my  words ; but  looking  back  at  the  world’s  history 
for  many  centuries,  during  which  time  polite  literature 
in  the  dead  languages,  heathen  mythology,  and  polemical 
theology  have  held  undisputed  educational  possession 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


3 


of  the  mental  field,  I cannot  but  be  impressed  by  the 
fact,  that  they  have,  as  schoolboys  would  express  it,  had 
a very  considerably  long  innings,  and  made  a poor  score  : 
and,  if  we  look  to  what  has  been  accomplished  by  meji 
who  have  not  benefited  by  that  kind  of  education,  still 
more  if  we  consider  what  has  been  the  result  of  modern 
scientific  education,  in  many  a field  both  intellectual 
and  social,  we  must  acknowledge,  that  in  a very  short 
innings  there  has  been  registered  a winning  score,  in  a 
contest  wherein  human  liberty  and  happiness  have  been 
the  victors,  — a liberty  which  we  possess  because  of  our 
deliverance  from  ignorance  of  some  of  God's  laws,  and  a 
happiness  which  arises  from  their  more  perfected  knowl- 
edge. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  therefore,  that  now,  when 
the  majority  of  human  beings  in  countries  where  so 
marked  a progress  has  occurred  are  to  be  educated,  and 
that  they  are  to  be  educated  for  the  practical  business 
of  life  rather  than  its  contemplation,  instruction  should 
at  least  include  subjects  which  have  reference  to  the 
arts  of  daily  life,  and  the  occupations  of  a vast  majority 
of  the  people.  It  is  undoubtedly  right  that  the  mind 
should  be  cultivated,  and  that  the  intellectual  faculties, 
developed  by  study  of  the  wisdom  of  past  ages,  be  en- 
abled to  profit  by  experience,  and  grasp  the  spiritual 
laws  which  govern  us  ; but  it  cannot  be  wrong,  so  long 
as  our  physical  frames  vitally  connect  us  with  the  earth 
we  are  upon,  that  our  bodies  should,  by  training,  be 
made  the  ready  servants  of  our  minds,  and  be  enabled 
to  express  completely,  without  interception  or  distortion, 
the  ideas  or  conceptions  we  mentally  create.  Education 
is  not  the  accumulation  of  facts  and  formulae,  as  dry 
goods  are  stored  in  a warehouse,  any  more  than  the 
Church  is  composed  of  the  conveniently-arranged  heaps 
of  stones  in  which  men  worship  their  Creator : it 


4 


ART  EDUCATION. 


is  the  clothing  of  men’s  minds  with  a shield  from  igno 
ranee,  whilst  full  play  is  allowed  for  the  exercise  of  their 
trained  wills  ; and  it  is  the  training  of  those  wills  to  do 
what  the  trained  mind  and  the  skilful  hand  shall  find,  to 
do,  and  do  it  with  all  their  might , — might  being  power 
of  knowledge  and  power  of  execution,  expressed  in  one 
strong  word,  — that  constitutes  a real  and  practical  educa- 
tion, in  which  the  known  and  the  possible  unite  to  form 
the  practically-educated  man.  A passage  from  an  ad- 
dress by  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair  embodies  in  an  example  a 
fair  representation  of  the  value  of  the  two  kinds  of 
education : — 

“ The  German  States,  towards  the  end  of  the  last 
century  and  the  first  part  of  the  present  one,  fully  per- 
ceived the  necessity  of  educating  their  population  ; and 
schools  were  liberally  spread  over  the  country,  both  for 
the  poor  and  for  the  middle  classes.  Classical  educa- 
tion, which  operates  on  the  truth  that  man’s  moral 
nature  is  always  the  same,  and  that,  therefore,  the 
human  passions  may  be  governed  by  a knowledge  of 
past  experience,  was  made  the  groundwork  upon  which 
the  German  schools  were  taught.  The  schools  suc- 
ceeded admirably  ; and  their  pupils  were  worthy  of  the 
excellent  instruction  they  received.  But,  after  being 
educated,  they  naturally  looked  for  employment  in  the 
direction  of  their  education.  They  said  to  the  Govern- 
ment which  had  established  those  schools,  ‘ You  have 
taught  us  how  to  understand  the  nature  of  our  fellow- 
men  by  the  experience  of  the  past ; we  can  now  aid  you 
to  govern  them:  give  us  employment.’  It  was  in  vain 
for  Government  to  say,  ‘ We  have  given  you  a good  edu- 
cation : go  and  work  for  yourselves.’  The  natural  answer 
was,  ‘ The  sort  of  education  you  have  given  does  not  at 
all  adapt  us  for  an  industrial  life.  We  know  much 
about  history,  logic,  and  philosophy,  but  nothing  about 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


5 


manufactures  and  commerce,’  Accordingly,  the  Govern- 
ment had  gradually  to  enlarge  their  bureau  for  the  re- 
ception of  their  well-educated  men,  until,  finally,  one  in 
sixty  of  the  population  entered  into  State  employment.” 
At  that  time  Germany,  though  a classically-educated 
country,  was  neither  rich  nor  strong.  “ Then  the  Trade 
or  Industrial  Schools  were  opened,  which,  giving  an 
education  in  the  direction  of  production,  drew  off  men’s 
minds  from  looking  to  the  State  as  the  only  source  of 
respectable  employment  ; relieving  the  old  pressure, 
while  it  increased  the  resources  of  the  country.” 

Germany,  which,  is  now  half  a century  ahead  of  other 
European  countries  in  schools  of  practical  industry,  is 
the  acknowledged  leader  in  many  other  ways,  and  may 
be  quoted  as  an  example  of  modern  industrial  education 
affecting  the  circumstances  and  character  of  a whole 
people.  A nation  of  dreamers  has  been  transformed 
into  the  most  intensely-practical  workers,  who  enter 
every  vocation  with  knowledge,  and  pursue  it  with  suc- 
cess. 

Now,  I do  not  wish  to  attempt  to  prove  too  much,  nor 
to  fall  into  the  error  of  the  advocates  of  classical  educa- 
tion simply,  by  asserting  that  industrial  education  is  all- 
sufficient.  My  plea  is,  that  a mistake  has  been  made  by 
ignoring  it,  and  is  still  being  made  by  those  who  regard 
it  as  of  less  importance  than  classical  education  ; and  I 
say,  that  the  evidence  of  the  last  fifty  years  goes  to 
show,  that,  of  the  two,  technical  or  industrial  education, 
carried  on  in  the  laboratory,  studio,  and  workshop,  has 
been  the  most  fruitful  in  its  influence  and  effects  on  the 
happiness  of  mankind. 

What  I have  advocated  has,  with  remarkable  fore- 
sight, long  since  been  anticipated  by  the  keen,  practical 
instincts  of  the  men  of  Massachusetts ; and  in  the  Bos- 
ton Technological  Institute,  now  in  the  full  career  of  its 
1* 


6 


ART  EDUCATION. 


beneficent  operations,  the  State  possesses  an  invaluable 
agency  for  the  development  of  industrial  education ; 
whilst  its  existence  is  the  most  complete  evidence  that 
could  be  given  of  belief  in  the  value  attached  to  such 
agencies.  What  is  here  being  done  for  science,  cover- 
ing  half  the  ground  of  the  subject,  I want  to  see  done 
for  art  also,  that  the  whole  field  of  the  industrial  arts 
pertaining  to  our  daily  lives  may  be  thoroughly  culti- 
vated. Science  has  attracted  to  its  enticing  embraces 
the  brilliant  master  minds  of  this  practical  age,  who 
have,  by  the  greatness  and  the  fruitfulness  of  their  dis- 
coveries, placed  the  claims  of  their  mistress  beyond  the 
needs  of  advocacy.  Scientific  education,  though  yet  in 
its  infancy,  has  had  such  excellent  nurses,  being  in 
itself  a precocious  child,  that  it  can  now  run  alone 
without  the  aid  of  sponsors  or  guardians. 

The  same  can  hardly  be  said  for  art  education.  It 
is  only  very  recently,  that,  driven  by  necessity,  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking race  has  recognized  in  art  education  any 
practical  value  at  all ; and  at  the  present  time  men  who 
regard  all  art  as  a plaything  arc  unhappily  not  yet  to  be 
classed  with  the  dodo,  the  fish-lizards  of  the  mud 
period,  and  other  extinct  animals. 

It  has  been  this  senseless  estimate  of  art  which, 
ignoring  its  capabilities  for  ministering  to  the  highest 
requirements  and  capacities  of  men,  and  looking  upon 
it  as  an  exceptional  characteristic  of  a few  eccentric 
persons,  — this  false  judgment  has  alone  been  responsible 
for  the  absence  of  opportunities  for  its  development 
into  usefulness,  and  its  elevation  into  the  position  of  an 
element  in  all  education.  Men's  capacities  lie  buried 
within  them,  like  precious  stones  in  the  mine,  or  min- 
erals on  the  hillside  ; to  discover  which  we  must  search 
long  in  many  places,  or  dig  deeply  over  the  whole  field, 
if  we  are  to  find  what  there  is  beneath  the  surface. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


7 


Unless  more  than  one  trial  be  made  to  discover  the 
hidden  treasure,  it  may  lie  forever  useless  to  those  who 
most  need  it,  and  are  its  unconscious  possessors.  The 
iron  ore  and  the  coal  lying  uselessly  beneath  the  earth 
require  first  to  be  found,  and  their  value  tested ; and 
then  comes  a Newcastle  pitman,  with  a mine  of  natural 
science  yet  undiscovered  within  him,  who  combines  the 
properties  and  capacities  of  these  two  materials  into 
the  locomotive  engine,  — an  instrument  of  civilization 
which  has  done  more  for  every  person  in  this  century 
than  any  one  other  material  agency  for  human  happi- 
ness. 

The  stupid  boy  at  school,  to  whom  tenses  and  cases 
are  an  abomination,  and  who  finally,  given  up  by  his 
teachers,  is  turned  adrift  on  the  world  as  a lout,  may 
be  compared  to  a waste  field  showing  evidences  of 
unskilful  trials  to  find  iron  or  silver  ore,  ending  in  blind 
mines  and  abandoned  workings.  It  might  have  been, 
that,  had  a wider  range  been  taken,  the  mine  would 
have  been  discovered ; the  boy  would  have  found  the 
work  his  hands  had  to  do  in  the  world,  and  been 
strengthened  to  accomplish  it ; the  vein  would  have 
been  hit,  the  well  tapped  ; but,  unfound,  he  has  to  grope 
his  dispirited  way  through  the  world,  leading  a valueless 
life,  or  stumbling  late  in  life,  if  ever,  by  what  we  will 
term  a providential  accident,  into  his  natural  vocation. 
In  broadening  the  basis  of  education  by  the  addition  of 
the  elements  of  science  and  art  to  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction in  schools,  we  give  opportunities  not  yet 
obtainable  for  reaching  the  faculties  of  peculiarly-con- 
stituted  minds,  and  place  within  the  reach  of  all  the 
first  steps  of  many  useful  careers ; and  thus  we  guard 
against  a waste  of  human  power,  and  a misdirection  of 
human  life,  and  at  the  same  time  pave  the  way  for 
greater  intelligence  and  refinement  generally.  A child 


8 


ART  EDUCATION. 


who  cannot  draw  the  forms  of  objects  which  his  eye 
sees,  as  readily  as  he  can  write  or  repeat  the  words  his 
ear  hears,  is  only  half  educated ; for  only  half  his  natural 
powers  have  been  educed,  or  brought  out.  A child 
who  is  brought  up  ignorant  of  physical  laws  and  the 
elements  of  scientific  knowledge  has  to  buy  his  experi- 
ence at  a costly  rate  in  all  his  after  life,  often  at  the 
price  of  life  itself. 

There  is  one  difference  between  the  claims  of  science 
and  art  to  a recognition  in  general  elementary  educa- 
tion, which  is,  that,  though  a certain  advance  must  have 
been  made  on  the  other  subjects  of  education  before  the 
child  is  capable  of  receiving  scientific  axioms,  in  art, 
whose  first  exercises  are  in  imitation  onty,  the  child 
cannot  begin  too  young ; because  the  reasoning  powers 
are  not  brought  into  play  so  much  as  the  purely  sensual, 
— the  sense  of  vision  and  the  sense  of  touch.  It  is  a 
matter  of  question  in  my  mind,  whether  drawing  ought 
not  to  precede  writing  in  education,  as  a more  natural 
and  simpler  style  of  writing,  less  complicated,  and 
employing  less  of  the  reasoning  powers  than  the  prac- 
tice of  making  arbitrary  signs,  which  conventionally 
represent  thoughts,  and  often  thoughts  the  child  never 
had,  and  would  not  believe  if  they  occurred  to  him  and 
he  understood  them,  such  as  “ Correction  is  good  for 
the  unruly.”  Writing  is,  in  fact,  only  drawing  from 
memory ; and  the  page  I am  now  covering,  if  j'ou  will 
allow  me  to  meditate,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a 
drawing  from  memory  of  signs  which  visibly  imitate 
the  thoughts  passing  through  my  mind. 

A convention  of  schoolmasters  in  London,  who  had 
made  instruction  in  drawing  general  in  their  schools  for 
a year,  as  an  experiment,  passed  this  resolution  : “ That 
half  of  the  time  previously  given  to  writing  had  been 
given  to  drawing,  with  the  result,  that  the  writing  had 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


9 


lueen'  better,  and  the  power  of  drawing  was  a clear 
gain.”  That  was  in  about  the  year  1852,  since  which 
time  very  little  has  been  said  in  that  country  of  the 
difficulties  in  teaching  children  to  draw.  It  was  demon- 
strated by  fair  experiment,  that  about  a hundred  per  cent 
of  school  children  could  be  taught  to  draw  well,  and  that 
demonstration  shattered  the  ancient  notion  of  genius 
monopolizing  art  powers.  Indeed,  not  only  is  this  true 
of  children,  but  experience  in  the  city  of  Boston  shows 
that  adults  of  nearly  all  .ages  can  be  taught  also  ; the 
evening  classes  and  the  Normal  School  having  pupils 
varying  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  sixty,  who  are, 
without  an  exception,  steadily  acquiring  skill  in  draw- 
ing. There  are  but  four  classes  of  human  beings  Avhom 
it  is  not  found  practicable  to  instruct  in  drawing.  They 
are  the  blind,  the  idiotic,  the  lunatic,  and  the  paralytic. 
Of  the  rest  of  mankind  and  womankind,  exactly  a hun- 
dred per  cent  can  be  taught  to  draw.  The  only  real 
difficulty  in  teaching  drawing  to  adults  is  found  in  the 
settled  conviction  in  some  people’s  minds,  that  they  are 
incapable  of  learning.  It  is  the  only  fatal  hinderance  ; 
for,  until  that  is  removed,  little  progress  can  be  made. 
And  the  delusion  usually  occupies  a well-fortified 
stronghold,  and  will  not  easily  surrender.  I have  often 
retreated  in  discomfiture  before  an  enemy  of  that  kind ; 
and  my  only  consolation  has  been  the  soliloquy  of  the 
henpecked  husband : — 

“ If  slie  says  slie  will,  she  will,  you  may  depend  on’t : 

If  she  says  she  won't,  she  won't ; and  there’s  an  end  on’t.” 

If  we  consider  the  place  of  drawing  in  general  edu- 
cation, it  may  be  said,  that,,  commencing  with  the  child 
upon  first  entry  to  school  life,  it  should,  under  various 
developments,  suitable  to  change  of  age  and  increase 


10 


ART  EDUCATION. 


of  powers,  be  practised  through  the  whole  school  course. 
The  ability  to  represent  the  forms  of  all  objects  with 
accuracy  and  readiness  must  inevitably  result  from  in- 
cluding drawing  in  the  education  of  every  child ; and 
that  is  a very  useful  power  to  all.  What  we  want  is, 
that  all  kinds  of  elementary  drawing  shall  be  taught  as 
a language,  not  as  an  art,  and  be  used  as  an  instrument, 
not  as  a plaything.  Drawing  treated  as  a language  is  a 
criticism  made  by  ourselves  upon  our  own  knowledge,  in 
which  we  either  discover  the  depths  of  our  ignorance,  or 
express  intelligibly  the  knowledge  and  ideas  we  have. 
Especially  will  drawing  be  found  a ready  handmaid  to 
scientific  study,  illustrating  its  axioms,  recording  its  phe- 
nomena, and  explaining  its  laws.  In  the  schoolroom, 
the  danger  is  strenuously  to  be  guarded  against  of 
allowing  drawing  to  be  practised  for  the  mere  purpose 
of  producing  pretty  things.  It  should  be  regarded  as  a 
servant,  or  vehicle,  to  assist  expression  in  the  stud}7  of 
other  subjects,  as  it  is  in  geography,  by  means  of  map- 
drawing. Thus,  I would  not  teach  a class  the  art  of 
flower-drawing  as  an  accomplishment,  but  give  it  lessons 
in  botany,  and  require  the  illustrations  to  be  drawn  to 
fix  the  principles  of  growth  on  the  memory.  By  that 
means  we  should  get  accurate  drawings,  and  the  botani- 
cal knowledge  would  be  an  additional  gain. 

In  teaching  drawing,  from  the  very  first,  objectless 
and  meaningless  forms  ought  to  be  avoided  as  copies ; 
for  they  make  no  appeal  to  other  knowledge  possessed 
by  the  pupil,  or  which  can  be  communicated.  Thus  it 
is  as  easy  to  give  a class  information  about  the  historical 
details  of  architecture,  by  selecting  type-forms  of  the 
different  periods  as  drawing-copies,  as  to  give  mere 
exercises  in  drawing,  embodying  neither  history  nor 
architecture.  Fitting  subjects  of  study  in  drawing  and 
painting  may  be  thus  adapted  to  all  the  school  ages, 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


11 


beginning  with  the  lowest  class  in  the  primary  school 
'and  ending  with  graduation  at  the  university : during 
all  of  which  time  the  study  is  to  he  regarded  as  the 
means  to  an  end,  and  not  the  end  itself ; the  end  being 
to  see,  to  know,  to  remember,  to  reproduce,  and  finally 
to  create  : in  other  words,  education.  The  time  spent  in 
practising  drawing  weekly  need  be  no  longer,  and  should 
not  be  shorter,  than  that  given  to  other  elementary  sub- 
jects, such  as  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  ; and  great 
economy  of  time  in  after  life  will  be  insured  by  the  pos- 
session of  a means  of  expression  as  ready  as  the  tongue 
and  more  descriptive  than  the  pen. 

The  use  of  drawing  in  the  workshop  and  office  needs 
but  little  demonstration ; seeing  that,  without  its  skilful 
practice,  many  trades  and  manufactures  and  several  pro- 
fessions cannot  get  on  at  all.  And  when  we  come  to  the 
practical  business  of  every-day  life  in  the  shop,  factory, 
and  studio,  we  must  substitute  the  more  general  word 
of  art  education,  including  drawing,  painting,  model- 
ling, and  designing,  as  the  extent  of  art  instruction 
required. 

The  same  act  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Legislature 
which  made  elementary  drawing  a compulsory  subject 
of  instruction  in  every  public  school  in  the  State,  so 
.that  every  school-teacher  neglecting  or  refusing  to  teach 
it  to  the  best  of  his  or  her  ability  is  breaking  the  law,  or 
setting  it  at  defiance,  — the  same  act  imposed  on  all  cities 
and  towns  which  had  a population  of  above  ten  thou- 
sand, the  additional  duty  of  providing  free  instruction 
for  adults  in  evening  classes  in  the  subject  of  industrial 
drawing. 

This  industrial  drawing,  a term  variously  interpreted, 
may  be  taken  to  include  instruction  in  such  branches  of 
drawing  as  will  make  all  those  engaged  in  industrial 
occupations  better  workmen,  through  the  improvement 


12 


ART  EDUCATION. 


of  their  knowledge,  and  elevation  of  their  taste ; which 
instruction  has  not  been  furnished  them  at  school,  and 
cannot  be  obtained  in  the  workshop.  The  phrase  is 
well  chosen  and  comprehensive  ; indeed,  the  whole  act  is 
a model  of  composition,  both  in  what  it  says  and  in  what 
it  does.  Two  words,  however,  require  to  be  added  to 
it ; and  I hope  will  be  added  at  some  future  time,  — the 
words  “ and  modelling  ” after  the  words  “ industrial 
drawing ; ” and  then  it  would  embrace  practice  in  in- 
dustrial art  such  as  is  most  required  by  carvers,  model- 
lers, plasterers,  chasers,  and  moulders,  and  all  who  work 
in  solid  materials.  Two  words  also  should  be  erased 
from  the  act,  — the  words  “ or  mechanical  ” after  the  word 
“ industrial,”  referring  to  drawing : for  the  word  “ indus- 
trial ” includes  the  section  of  it,  mechanical;  and  their 
use  in  the  act  suggests  that  the  two  words  are  synony- 
mous, which  is  not  the  case ; and  that  interpretation  has 
misled  many. 

Among  the  ways  in  which  art  knowledge  may  be  of 
use  in  the  workshop,  is  in  the  economy  of  labor  arising 
from  the  workman  having  definite  objects  in  view,  and 
having  to  make  no  experiments  in  carrying  out  work 
which  must  be  executed  to  scale,  plan,  and  design.  I 
venture  to  say,  that  in  every  workshop  or  factory  where 
no  knowledge  of  drawing  is  possessed  by  the  workmen, 
there  is  a waste  of  material,  a waste  of  time,  and  an  in- 
ferior article  produced  in  the  end,  — evils  which  are  a 
loss  to  the  employer,  through  sacrificing  of  his  material, 
and  inferiority  of  work ; a loss  to  the  workman,  by  his 
time  having  to  be  wasted  in  experiments  ; and  a loss  to 
the  public  of  tasteful  objects  to  be  obtained  at  a moder- 
ate cost. 

It  is  known  how  important  a part  the  foreman  in 
every  workshop  or  factory  has  to  perform  ; yet  often  the 
only  difference  between  him  and  the  average  artisan  is. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


13 


that  the  foreman  has  more  technical  and  artistic  or 
scientific  knowledge  than  those  under  him.  There  is 
no  reason  why  every  man  should  not  be  raised  to  the 
foreman’s  standard,  and  the  foreman  himself  many  de- 
grees higher  than  he  now  stands ; and  that  will  occur 
when,  in  the  common  schools  and  in  the  municipal  art 
schools,  workmen  are  taught  to  draw  and  design.  Art 
education  in  the  form  of  industrial  drawing,  whatever  it 
may  cost  the  country,  will  be  repaid  to  it  in  the  increased 
value  of  industrial  products : it  will  develop  the  intel- 
lect of  the  people  in  an  eminently  practical  direction ; 
and  there  will  be  no  workshops  standing  still,  because 
the  one  man  who  understands  working  drawings  hap- 
pens to  be  away  (as  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  now), 
if  every  man  in  the  shop  can  as  easily  make  the  working 
drawing  as  he  can  work  from  it,  and  is  prepared  to  do 
both  if  required.  It  is  not  unusual  for  English  trades- 
men to  insert  in  the  indentures  of  their  apprentices,  that 
the  youth  shall  attend  a school  of  art  or  science  for  two 
or  three  nights  per  week,  forty  weeks  in  the  year ; for 
which  the  employer  or  master  pays  the  fees.  That 
clause  recognizes  the  increased  worth  in  the  work  of 
the  apprentice  likely  to  arise  from  his  improvement  by 
means  of  technical  study. 

It  will  be  a source  of  comfort  to  architects  and  engi- 
neers when  their  offices  can  command  skilful  draughts- 
men from  schools  of  art  in  this  country ; and,  though 
that  is  a work  of  some  difficulty  now,  by  the  help  of 
art  institutions  it  cannot  long  remain  so.  The  advanced 
classes  of  the  free  evening  schools,  necessitated  by  the 
law  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  will  probably  at- 
tract many  students,  whose  studies  in  light  and  shade 
of  the  human  figure  and  historical  sculpture  must  be 
a source  of  great  improvement  to  them  professionally. 
When  architecture  is  taking  so  great  a hold  on  the 
2 


14 


ART  EDUCATION. 


desires  of  the  moneyed  classes  as  it  is  in  the  cities  and 
elsewhere  in  the  whole  country,  a great  demand  will 
necessarily  arise  for  the  highest  skill  in  draughtsman- 
ship and  design  before  very  long.  It  will  be  well,  there- 
fore, that  architectural  students  should  lay  hold  of  the 
opportunities  which  will  freely  be  given  to  them  to  pre- 
pare for  the  advancement  in  taste  to  be  expected  from 
a general  education  in  art  of  the  people,  and  the  conse- 
quent elevation  in  character  of  the  demand  for  archi- 
tectural art. 

Perhaps  the  most  practically  important  view  of  the 
subject  of  art  education  is  its  value  commercially. 
In  an  essentially  utilitarian  age,  things  are  judged  by 
the  standard  of  usefulness,  rather  than  sentiment;  and 
wherever  we  find  great  success  following  the  experi- 
ment of  introducing  art  education,  it  is  where  business 
men  have  forwarded  and  developed  it  as  a question 
of  dollars  and  cents.  If  any  apology  were  required 
why  the  State  of  Massachusetts  is  expending  some  few 
thousand  dollars  a year  in  fostering  art  education, 
it  would  be  found  in  the  statement,  that  the  leading 
manufacturers  and  merchants  in  the  State  had  peti- 
tioned it  to  move  in  the  matter,  and  that,  in  answer  to 
inquiries  made  of  practical  men  to  discover  whether 
drawing  was  of  any  use,  every  respondent  said,  “ Yes.” 
There  can  be  no  misunderstanding  such  evidence  as  the 
following,  published  in  a pamphlet  called  “ Papers  on 
Drawing,”  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  written  in  reply  to  a series  of  questions 
as  to  the  value  and  practicability  of  instruction  in 
drawing,  printed  in  1870.  Prof.  Thompson  of  the 
Worcester  Technical  School  says,  “ A boy  who  spends 
two  hours  a week  in  drawing,  and  the  rest  of  the  time 
in  working  at  the  bench,  learns  his  business  faster,  and 
becomes  more  skilful  in  it,  than  one  who  works  all  the 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


15 


time.”  Again,  “ It  is  calculated  that  the  productive 
efficiency  of  every  machine  shop  would  he  increased 
thirty-three  per  cent  if  every  journeyman  could  read 
any  common  working  drawing  and  work  by  it.” 

Prof.  Ware,  Professor  of  Architecture  in  the  Boston 
Institute  of  Technology,  replied,  “ Drawing  is  an  invalu- 
able element  in  general  education.  To  the  workman 
it  is  of  the  greatest  practical  use  : it  makes  him  a more 
intelligent  and  serviceable  workman.  If  he  attains  to 
real  skill  in  the  use  of  his  pencil,  and  develops  the 
tastes  and  talents  that  cannot  without  this  training 
be  either  discovered  or  made  use  of,  he  becomes  a 
valuable  person  at  once.  Every  branch  of  our  manu- 
factures is  suffering  from  the  want  of  just  this  intelli- 
gence and  skill.”  With  a courage  born  of  true  patriot- 
ism, which  does  not  shrink  from  telling  the  truth  to  his 
fellow-countrymen,  even  though  it  be  unpalatable,  Prof. 
W are  concludes  his  reply  thus  : — 

“ At  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  1851,  England  found 
herself,  by  general  consent,  almost  at  the  bottom  of  the 
list,  among  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  in  respect 
of  her  art  manufactures.  Only  the  United  States, 
among  the  great  nations,  stood  below  her.  The  first 
result  of  this  discovery  was  the  establishment  of 
Schools  of  Art  in  every  large  town.  At  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  18G7,  England  stood  among  the  foremost, 
and  in  some  branches  of  manufacture  distanced  the 
most  artistic  nations.  It  was  the  Schools  of  Art  and 
the  great  collection  of  works  of  Industrial  Art  at  the 
South  Kensington  Museum  that  accomplished  this  result. 
The  United  States  still  held  her  place  at  the  foot  of  the 
column.” 

Another  witness,  Prof.  Bail  of  Yale  College,  testifies 
thus : — 

“ Such  instruction  will  make  our  nation  richer,  by 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


17 


time  of  engineers  and  foremen  spent  in  explaining 
drawings  which  would  have  been  understood  at  a glance, 
had  the  workmen  been  instructed  in  drawing,  and  the 
time  consumed  in  listening  to  these  explanations,  — 
costs  the  country,  it  is  safe  to  say,  millions  of  dollars 
annually.  This,  certainly,  is  an  argument  in  favor  of 
doing  something  towards  giving  our  mechanics  some 
knowledge  of  drawing.” 

With  such  evidence  as  this  in  its  possession,  and  much 
more  of  a similar  kind,  the  State  was  justified  in  doing 
something ; and  perhaps  the  consciousness  that  every 
other  civilized  country  besides  America  had  already 
recognized  the  needs  of  trade,  and  provided  art  educa- 
tion for  its. people,  did  not  delay  the  movement.  In  my 
visits  as  State  Director  of  Art  Education  to  various 
cities  in  the  Commonwealth,  I have  heard  many  remark- 
able statements  made  concerning  the  money  value  of 
a knowledge  of  drawing.  At  Worcester  a manager  of 
an  important  branch  of  local  industry  said,  that  when 
a lad  he  was  one  of  a class  of  thirteen  who  spent  all 
their  leisure  time  in  studying  drawing.  At  the  present 
time  every  one  then  in  the  class  had  attained  to  impor- 
tant positions,  either  as  manufacturers  or  managers ; 
and  each  had  owed  his  power  to  seize  the  opportunity 
of  advancement  to  his  knowledge  of  drawing.  That  is 
testimony  such  as  requires  no  comment.  Within  the 
last  five  and  twenty  years,  we  have  seen  a wonderful 
change  take  place  in  the  money  value  of  the  manufac- 
tures of  England.  Whilst  the  cost  of  producing  most 
of  the  products  of  industrial  art  has  decreased  by  about 
one-half,  through  the  invention  of  various  machines 
and  the  discovery  of  labor-saving  processes,  the  actual 
value  of  the  manufactured  article,  taking  one  branch 
of  manufacture  with  another,  is  nearly  doubled ; and 
this  difference  is  not  to  be  accounted  for  by  any  altera- 


18 


ART  EDUCATION. 


tion  in  the  value  of  money.  How,  then,  is  it  to  he 
explained  ? Simply  thus  : A manufactured  article, 

whether  a garment,  a piece  of  porcelain,  an  article  of 
furniture,  or  even  a golden  chalice,  may  he  said  to 
possess  three  elements  of  value  : 1st,  the  raw  material ; 

2d,  the  labor  of  production ; 8d,  the  art  character. 
The  two  first  in  some  few  cases  are  a large  proportion 
of  the  value  of  the  whole ; and,  where  no  art  whatever 
is  displayed,  it  forms  the  whole  value.  But  in  a vast 
majority  of  the  manufacturing  products  of  eveiy  coun- 
try, the  elements  of  cost  of  material  and  cost  of  labor 
are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  third  element ; 
viz.,  art  character.  It  is  that  which  makes  the  object 
attractive  and  pleasing,  or  repulsive  or  uninteresting,  to 
the  purchaser,  and  is  consequently  of  commercial  value. 
In  many  objects,  where  the  material  is  of  little  or  no 
intrinsic  worth,  the  taste  displayed  in  their  design 
forms  the  sole  value,  or  the  principal ; and  it  has  been 
the  general  elevation  of  that  element  which  has  nearly 
doubled  the  commercial  value  of  English  manufactures. 
I am  not  aware  of  any  great  improvement  of  material 
or  of  demand,  but  have  seen  with  my  own  e}res  an 
advance  in  the  artistic  element  in  many  branches  of 
British  industry  from  a condition  closely  bordering  upon 
the  barbarism  of  savage  races  to  the  refinement  of  the 
greatest  art  epochs.  And  it  has  not  been  an  exceptional 
case,  or  a development  in  one  direction  owing  to  pecu- 
liar circumstances.  If  we  take  pottery,  glass,  porcelain, 
terracotta,  metal  work  in  wrought  iron,  brass,  bronze, 
silver  plate,  goldsmith's  work,  jewellery,  paper-hanging, 
carpets,  parquetry,  encaustic  tiles,  furniture,  cabinet- 
making,  upholstery,  stained  glass,  mural  decoration, 
wood  and  stone  carving,  chasing,  enamelling,  lace-mak- 
ing, embroidery,  — all  show  that  infusion  of  taste  which 
has  in  all  cases  increased,  and  in  many  cases  doubled 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


19 


their  value  in  the  market  in  five  and  twenty  years. 
Now,  just  as  drawing  is  the  only  universal  language, 
so  art  is  an  almost  universal  currency,  and  amongst 
civilized  races  is  universal ; with  this  remarkable  char- 
acteristic that  let  the  art  in  a thing  be  good  art,  based 
upon  natural  laws,  and  treated  with  consistency  and 
purity  of  feeling,  and  it  shall  consecrate  the  material 
which  it  ennobles,  so  that  lapse  of  time  will  add  to 
its  value  until  antiquity  enshrines  it. 

As  long  as  civilization  is  allowed  to  pursue  its  course, 
however  tastes  may  change,  and  whatever  developments 
may  be  wrought,  the  stamp  of  good,  honest,  skilful,  and 
cultured  art  industry  will  not  only  preserve  its  value, 
but  pay  compound  interest  as  well.  The  best  example 
I know  of  this  is  that  of  the  South-lyensington  Museum 
and  its  contents.  In  1851  the  English  schools  of  design 
were  put  under  the  control  of  a hard-headed  business 
man,  who  grasped  the  whole  subject  of  art  education, 
and  saw  its  relationship  to  industrial  art.  He  saw  that 
two  things  were  needed,  — a museum  of  industrial  art, 
and  art  masters  to  give  instruction.  Beginning  with  a 
grant  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  to  purchase  works  from 
the  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  an  annual  appropriation, 
which  has  increased  every  year,  Mr.  Cole  has  created  a 
museum  of  industrial  art  which  is  one  of  the  joys  of 
the  Avhole  earth.  Of  course,  economists  would  some- 
times start  up  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  oppose 
the  grants  to  art,  as  a waste  of  public  money,  and  oppose 
the  appropriation  to  the  museum,  as  extravagant  out- 
lay which  would  bear  no  return.  I say  it  with  shame, 
also,  that  others  opposed  the  expenditure  upon  the 
museum.  Mr.  Cole’s  answer  to  his  critics  was  unique  ; 
and,  since  it  was  given,  no  one  has  yet  had  the  temerity 
to  find  fault.  It  was  this  : “ Gentlemen,  the  nation  has 
expended  a certain  amount  of  money  in  buying  up 


20 


ART  EDUCATION. 


Majolica  plates  and  Cellini  vases,  cabinets  and  examples 
of  art  workmanship  in  every  material  and  style  and 
period.  If  it  repents  of  its  bargain,  I am  prepared  to 
find  a responsible  committee  to  take  the  collection  off 
the  nation's  hands  at  the  price  given  for  it,  and  pa}1, 
interest,  and  compound  interest,  for  the  money  which 
has  been  sunk.”  This  set  the  economists  a-thinking 
and  inquiring ; and  they  found,  that  so  well  had  pur- 
chases been  made,  and  so  greatly  had  masterpieces  of 
industrial  art  increased  in  value,  that,  if  the  collections 
were  brought  to  the  hammer,  the  nation  would  be 
unnumbered  thousands  of  pounds  in  pocket,  besides 
having  increased  the  value  of  its  own  industrial  manu- 
facturing products  by  about  fifty  per  cent,  through  the 
influence  of  art  culture  and  the  examples  displayed  in 
the  museum.  Since  then  little  has  been  heard  of  waste 
of  public  money  by  investing  in  objects  of  art  for  public 
purposes. 

This  much  may  be  said  of  the  commercial  value  of  art 
education  nationally,  that  it  both  increases  the  estima- 
tion of  ancient  works,  and  the  quality  of  contemporary 
productions  ; whilst  individuals  who  become  proficient  in 
art  become  simultaneously,  as  Prof.  Ware  says,  “ valu- 
able persons  ” both  to  themselves  and  society. 

We  will  now  consider  how  the  several  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  art  education  in  its  broadest  interpreta- 
tion are  to  be  secured  for  this  country.  The  division  of 
the  general  government  into  sovereign  States  will  prob- 
ably prevent  for  a considerable  time  national  action  in 
the  matter,  even  if  the  enormous  geographical  area  of  the 
country  does  not  wholly  prevent  it.  This,  in  my  opinion, 
is  an  advantage,  because  it  will  necessitate  decentraliza- 
tion. The  capitals  of  the  several  American  States  are 
farther  apart  than  London,  Brussels,  and  Paris ; and 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


21 


many  of  them  at  a greater  distance  from  each  other  than 
Berlin,  Vienna,  St.  Petersburg,  Madrid,  and  Rome. 
Supposing,  therefore,  departments  of  science  and  art  of 
the  State  governments  to  be  in  existence  in  every  met- 
ropolitan city,  they  will  be  spread  over  America  as  the 
capitals  of  the  European  nations  are  distributed  over 
Europe.  I have  no  doubt  but  that  eventually,  whilst 
the  bond  of  a common  tongue,  the  interests  of  trade,  and 
the  facilities  of  intercommunication,  will  forever  unite  the 
sovereign  States  of  America  in  one  nation,  having  capa- 
cities for  becoming  the  greatest  and  grandest  that  has 
ever  existed  upon  the  earth,  there  will  yet  be  indepen- 
dent departments  of  science  and  art  in  every  metropolitan 
city,  from  which  will  emanate  the  art  education  of  each 
State.  But  just  as  Harvard  and  Yale,  through  the 
results  of  private  or  local  action,  may  be  said  to  be  the 
national  universities  of  America ; so  I believe  it  will  be 
found,  that  in  one  or  two  intellectual  centres  there  will 
arise  national  schools  of  design,  which  will  be  to  indus- 
trial education  what  Harvard  and  Yale  have  been  to 
professional  education.  Technical  education  in  art  and 
science  may  be  described  as  the  liberal  education  of  the 
working  classes,  who  have  not  found  a home  in  the  uni- 
versities, yet  who  require  secondary  instruction  of  a 
practical  character  in  the  industrial  direction,  as  much 
as  the  theologian  needs  his  Greek  and  Hebrew,  the 
engineer  his  mathematics,  the  physician  his  chemistry 
and  anatomy,  and  the  statesman  his  philosophy  and 
logic.  The  evidence  is  strongly  in  favor  of  the  city  of 
Boston  being  the  first  city  in  the  Union  to  establish  a 
national  school  of  design.  The  existence  of  Harvard 
College  in  close  proximity  to  the  city  gives  it  the  advan- 
tage of  a phalanx  of  eminent  men  in  the  professors,  which 
forms  its  thought,  and  shapes  its  aspirations.  That  a 
large  proportion  of  men  of  culture  and  European  travel- 


22 


ART  EDUCATION. 


lers  and  students  reside  in  Boston  has  also  had  its  effect 
upon  the  desire  for  progress  in  the  arts  which  has 
recently  been  developed. 

The  establishment  of  a museum  of  fine  and  industrial 
art  in  Boston,  which  is  now  in  the  process  of  construc- 
tion, has  committed  the  city  to  the  project  which  forms 
an  important  part  of  any  national  system  of  art  educa- 
tion. Yet  valuable  as  will  be  the  aid  of  the  art  museum 
in  its  effects  on  the  public  taste,  and  impossible  as  it 
would  be  to  have  a system  of  art  education  without  it, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a museum  is  only  a part  of 
a scheme,  which  must  be  supplemented  by  many  other 
parts  if  the  whole  result  is  ever  to  be  attained.  A 
museum,  however  rich  in  its  contents,  and  perfect  in  its 
arrangements  for  exhibition,  is  but  a show,  unless  it  com- 
bines with  its  wealth  of  art  the  active  educational  agen- 
cies  in  the  class-room  which  are  to  transmute  this  wealth 
into  currency.  The  absence  of  this  is  the  fault  of  the 
British  Museum,  the  Louvre,  and  many  other  priceless 
collections  of  art  and  antiquities  which  exist  simply  as 
museums,  and  not  as  training-schools.  The  opposite  of 
this  is  the  virtue  of  the  South-Kensington  Museum, 
where  above  a thousand  students  annually  obtain  educa- 
tion, fitting  them  for  every  branch  of  art  work,  whether 
as  designers,  public  instructors,  painters,  sculptors,  archi- 
tects, engravers,  lithographers,  or  as  connoisseurs.  And 
the  glorious  collections  which  form  a holiday  sight  for 
sight-seers  stand  as  faithful  witnesses,  giving  evidence  to 
the  inquiring  art  student,  and,  through  his  education,  be- 
coming general  in  their  influence  upon  the  national  taste. 
Thus  both  ends  are  attained : the  public  has  its  show,  and 
the  student  his  instruction ; for,  when  principles  have 
been  inculcated  in  the  class-room  and  lecture-theatre,  he 
adjourns  to  the  museum  to  see  the  historical  application 
of  those  principles  in  specimens  of  the  best  periods  of  art 
and  art  workmanship. 


GENERAL  RE  1 7E W. 


23 


1 am  aware  that  this  matter  is  receiving  the  best 
attention  of  those  engaged  upon  the  construction  of  the 
museum,  and  desire  to  place  on  record,  and  bring  before 
the  public,  suggestions  concerning  a development  of  the 
scheme.  The  drawing-classes  now  established  in  Boston 
and  many  other  cities  of  the  Commonwealth  are  not 
schools  of  design  nor  schools  of  art : the  fine  arts 
museum  of  itself  will  not  be  a school  of  art  or  design. 
It  is  the  union  of  the  two  for  the  same  purpose,  in  the 
same  place,  which  will  constitute  a real  school  of  design  ; 
and  the  absence  of  either  half  of  the  programme  deprives 
the  scheme  of  art  education  of  considerably  more  than 
half  of  its  efficiency.  The  peculiar  character  of  my 
duties  as  State  Director  of  Art  Education,  in  conference 
with  public  committees  and  boards  of  education,  in  dis- 
cussing the  means  and  difficulties  of  establishing  schools 
of  art  and  drawing  classes,  securing  teachers,  providing 
examples  of  study,  and  other  work  incidental  to  the  culti- 
vation of  art,  — these  duties  give  me  special  opportunities 
of  knowing  what  is  wanted  in  this  country  in  the  form 
of  a national  school  of  art ; whilst  a somewhat  long  and 
wide  experience  in  other  countries  of  how  such  institu- 
tions are  constructed  and  managed,  together  with  their 
successes  and  failures,  have  given  me  the  means  of 
judging,  and  have  impressed  me  with  a sense  of  respon- 
sibility in  expressing  the  result  of  my  present  observa- 
tions here,  and  knowledge  of  the  past  elsewhere. 

It  seems  to  me,  then,  that  the  one  thing  needful  for 
making  art  education  more  successful  here  than  it  has 
been  or  than  it  can  be  otherwise,  is  a central  institution, 
which  shall  be  to  the  diffusion  of  art  instruction  in  this 
country  what  the  heart  is  to  the  human  body,  — a centre 
of  vitality,  and  the  source  of  circulation  of  the  life-blood 
of  the  individual.  And  no  one  of  the  objects  sought  for 
in  the  various  organizations  which  attempt  only  a phase 


24 


ART  EDUCATION. 


of  the  subject  will  he  so  readily  or  efficientl}1-  attained, 
as  when  all  are  attempted  in  one  grand  scheme,  because 
the  parts  both  rest  upon  and  support  each  other.  Above 
all,  there  is  immediate  and  pressing  need  for  the  crea- 
tion of  a class  of  public  art  instructors ; for  I do  not 
spend  a week  without  receiving  applications  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  and  from  other 
States  as  well,  requesting  me  to  nominate  a public  in- 
structor in  art  for  the  locality  making  the  application. 
On  the  other  hand,  I have  been  consulted  by  many 
individuals,  and  am  being  consulted  everyday,  by  those 
who  want  to  become  teachers  of  art,  and  to  lie  put  into 
the  way  of  getting  the  necessary  professional  instruction. 
Here,  then,  face  to  face,  are  the  actual  need  of  the  com- 
munity, and  the  people  who  are  anxious  to  minister 
to  that  need,  but  who  are  not  yet  qualified  to  do  so. 
Several  persons  who  have  thus  sought  counsel  of  me 
have  proceeded  to  Europe  to  get  their  art  training,  in 
despair  of  immediately  securing  it  here  ; and  that  is  a 
loss  to  themselves  and  to  art  education  at  home.  See- 
ing thus  daily  the  wants  both  of  t lie  community  and  of 
individuals,  it  cannot  be  thought  unpractical  if  I most 
strongly  express  my  conviction,  that  what  we  want  in 
Massachusetts,  and  indeed  in  all  America,  is  a profes- 
sional art  training-school,  which  will  supply  us  both 
with  accomplished  art  masters  as  instructors,  and  give 
art  culture  of  the  highest  order  to  painters,  sculptors, 
and  architects.  What  has  been  provided  for  the  city 
of  Boston  in  the  form  of  a Normal  Drawing  School  for 
the  teachers  of  the  common  schools,  should  be  estab- 
lished in  Boston  by  the  State,  for  the  art  instructors  of 
the  Commonwealth,  just  as  the  State  supports  four 
normal  schools  for  general  education.  And,  until  that 
is  done  here,  we  shall  only  be  going  through  the  same 
unsatisfactory  state  of  experimenting  as  England  went 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


25 


through  between  the  years  1836  and  1851.  During 
that  period  any  artist  or  draughtsman  who  had  suffi- 
cient interest  could  be  appointed  as  master  of  a school 
of  design,  without  passing  through  any  test  of  his  pro- 
fessional knowledge,  or  giving  evidence  of  possessing 
any  educational  experience.  And  the  result  was,  that 
very  little  good  was  done ; for  the  artist  frequently  lacked 
the  power  to  teach,  and  the  draughtsman  knew  no  more 
of  the  broad  field  of  art  education  than  the  one  specialty 
he  practised  in  his  daily  work.  Thus  fifteen  years  of 
progress  were  thrown  away ; and  then  the  Government, 
by  establishing  an  art  museum  and  a professional  train- 
ing-school for  art  masters  and  instructors,  supplied  the 
proved  deficiencies,  and  began  that  system  of  public  art 
education,  the  progress  and  development  of  which  has 
no  parallel  in  any  country. 

Now,  in  an  essentially-practical  country  like  tins, 
where  old  fashions  and  slow  progress  are  not  wor- 
shipped, where  the  general  diffusion  of  education  and 
development  of  keen  intelligence  enable  the  people  to 
estimate  the  value  of  time,  I see  no  reason  why  we 
also  should  throw  away  fifteen  years  before  we  discover 
what  is  wanted. 

In  the  cities  I have  visited,  I have  found  the  men  of 
wealth  and  progress  listening  most  attentively  to  propo- 
sals for  establishing  schools  of  art  and  science ; and  so 
great  is  the  interest  awakened,  that  resolutions  have 
been  passed  for  immediate  action  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency. In  a short  time,  in  a goodly  number  of  cities, 
there  will  be  such  schools  in  operation,  lacking  nothing 
but  accomplished  instructors.  And  I hope  to  see  Boston 
not  lagging  behind  in  the  movement;  but  rather,  remem- 
bering her  ancient  and  acknowledged  capacity  of  leader, 
her  bright  and  universal  reputation  in  the  field  of  edu- 
cation, her  practical  wisdom  in  business  and  commerce, 

3 


26 


ART  EDUCATION. 


and  her  wholesome  ambition  to  he  at  once  the  Athens 
and  Venice  of  the  New  World,  — remembering  all  this, 
I anticipate  that  we  shall  soon  see  here  an  institution 
which  shall  have  the  same  relationship  to  similar  insti- 
tutions in  other  places,  that  Boston,  as  a metropolis,  has 
to  the  provincial  cities  of  the  Commonwealth,  and,  as  a 
seat  of  learning,  she  has  to  all  America. 

Having  thus  indicated  the  need  for  so  important  an 
institution  as  a national  school  of  design,  1 will  en- 
deavor to  describe  the  character  and  means  of  usefulness 
such  an  institution  should  have.  In  the  first  place,  the 
Boston  Art  Museum  stands  first  in  its  importance,  as  it 
will  probably  be  the  first  feature  provided  in  realization 
of  the  plan.  What  that  museum  should  be  is,  happily, 
almost  secured  already,  by  the  character  of  the  men  who 
are  engaged  in  its  organization.  The  experience,  the 
proved  knowledge,  and  the  extensive  acquaintance  with 
similar  museums  in  the  Old  World,  which  are  represented 
on  the  Board  of  Trustees,  are  the  best  possible  guaran- 
ties that  their  work  and  arrangement  will  be  all  that 
can  be  desirable.  The  public  confidence,  thus  inspired, 
will  doubtless  lead  to  magnificent  gifts  and  bequests, 
with  which  to  supply  the  museum  with  objects  of  art: 
for  be  it  remembered  that  the  building  is  but  the  casket, 
not  the  gem;  and  before  it  ceases  to  be  only  a building, 
and  becomes,  through  its  contents,  an  actual  museum, 
the  trustees  will  want  half  a million  of  dollars  to  expend 
in  reproductions  of  works  of  art,  just  to  make  a begin- 
ning. Here  is  an  opportunity  for  some  wealth}"  and 
public-spirited  citizens  to  enrich  the  whole  community 
by  substantial  gifts  in  furnishing  this  museum.  It  will 
be  an  enviable  distinction  and  a well-earned  immor- 
tality for  the  man  who,  having  both  the  means  and 
inclination,  employs  them  in  thus  identifying  himself,  by 
a noble  liberality,  with  the  foundation  of  art  culture  in 


GENERAL  REVIEW . 


27 


America,  — a worthy  ambition  for  some  of  the  million- 
naires  and  merchant-princes  of  Boston.  And  that  it  will 
be  done  I have  no  doubt ; for  a museum  of  this  kind  has 
always  been  a gathering-ground  for  donations,  bequests, 
and  loans.  The  many  inventions  by  which  works  of 
art  can  be  reproduced  will  enable  the  trustees  to  become 
possessed  of  every  class  of  art  work,  except  original 
pictures  ; and  even  these  may  come  when  collections  in 
Europe  change  hands,  and  wealthy  Americans  are  in 
the  market  ready  to  purchase  pictures  of  the  highest 
class.  How  this  will  affect  the  general  taste  need 
hardly  be  described.  For  the  painter  and  the  sculptor, 
the  galleries  and  collections  of  casts  will  provide  the 
opportunity  of  professional  study  of  schools  and  styles : 
the  historical  periods,  shown  in  architectural  carvings, 
will  enable  the  architect  to  avail  himself  of  the  wealth 
of  past  ages  in  originating  new  combinations  for  the 
present  age.  Choice  examples  of  industrial  masterpieces 
will  display  to  the  artisan  and  manufacturer  the  skill 
which  comes  of  art  power,  and  the  value  resulting  there- 
from ; and  the  library  of  art  and  scientific  works  will 
assist  students  in  every  rank  and  profession  to  enter  into 
and  possess,  as  if  by  birthright  inheritance,  the  accumu- 
lated thoughts  and  conceptions  of  the  wisest  men  and 
most  skilful  men  the  world  has  yet  produced. 

To  change  these  relics  of  the  past  into  the  living 
reality  of  the  present  and  germinating  seeds  of  the  fu- 
ture ; to  translate  this  as  yet  unknown  tongue  into  the 
vernacular  language,  so  that  all  men  shall  read  it  with 
ease  and  profit,  there  will  need  to  be  an  interpreting 
medium,  — the  education  of  the  class-room  and  lecture- 
theatre.  This  museum  will  be  the  granary,  and  Educa- 
tion is  the  husbandman. 

In  the  city  of  Boston  and  elsewhere,  where  lectures  on 
general  topics  are  so  attractive  and  frequent,  and  are 


28 


ART  EDUCATION. 


made  so  much  a means  of  public  education,  it  would 
be  an  addition  to  the  culture  and  enjoyment  of  society 
if  courses  of  lectures  upon  art  were  delivered  by  the 
professors  of  the  art  school,  open  alike  both  to  the  stu- 
dent in  training  and  the  public  ; upon  which  courses  the 
students  would  be  examined  for  their  degrees,  and  the 
public  attend  simply  as  auditors.  I believe,  that  if  two- 
thirds  of  a public  lecture-hall  in  the  future  art  museums 
were  open  free  to  the  public,  and  the  remaining  third  in 
front  of  the  platform  were  allotted  to  professional  stu- 
dents, both  ladies  and  gentlemen,  who  were  pupils  in  the 
schools,  and  who  would  be  engaged  with  note-books  and 
sketch-books  taking  down  the  materials  for  their  exami- 
nation as  received  from  the  professor’s  hands  ; and  that 
if  these  courses  were  delivered  at  night  instead  of,  as 
usual,  in  the  daytime,  — the  public  would  attend  them, 
and  find  them  good  intellectual  food,  worthy  of  the  seri- 
ous attention  of  men  and  women,  contrasting  somewhat 
favorably  with  those  courses  which  apparently  exist  here, 
and  I have  known  in  the  old  country,  and  which  are 
merely  intellectual  dissipation,  frivolous  amusements  to 
please  grown-up  boys  and  girls  who  have  nothing  better 
to  do. 

There  is  an  unworked  mine  of  untold  wealth  among 
us  in  the  art  education  of  women.  In  the  field  of  gen- 
eral education  here  I am  informed  that  nine-tenths  of 
the  teachers  are  women  ; and  some  explanation  of  its 
excellence  may  be  found  in  that  fact.  I have  discovered 
in  my  experience,  and  from  my  own  continued  observa- 
tions, that  the  peculiar  phases  of  mind  and  disposition 
which  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  possession  of 
teaching-power  are  more  frequentl}7  to  be  found  in 
women  than  in  men.  This  would  point  in  the  direction 
of  utilizing  much  human  life  now  not  profitably  occu- 
pied, by  educating  and  employing  ladies  as  teachers  of 


THE  BIRKENHEAD  SCHOOL  OF  ART. 


5. 


BASEMENT  FLOOR. 

Basement  Floor. 

A and  B.  Keeper’s  Apartments. 

C.  Heating  Apparatus-Room. 

D.  Lavatory. 

E.  F.  Class-Rooms. 

G.  Modelling-Room. 

Ground  Floor. 

H.  Open  Portico. 

I.  Lavatory  for  Ladies. 

J.  Class-Room,  say  for  Ladies. 

K.  L.  Head  Master’s  Rooms. 

M M.  Room  for  Life  Class. 

Upper  Floor. 

Consisting  of  one  large  room,  70  x 30  feet, 
for  elementary  classes,  with  the*  painting-room 
at  one  end,  capable  of  being  enlarged  or 
diminished  at  pleasure  by  means  of  movable 
screens. 


UPPER  FLOOR. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


29 


art.  There  are  also  many  branches  of  art  workmanship, 
requiring  delicate  fingers  and  native  readiness  of  taste, 
which  could  be  better  performed  by  women  than  men. 
It  seems  to  me  that  an  infinite  amount  of  good  would  be 
done  by  opening  up  the  whole  field  of  art  instruction 
and  art  workmanship  to  the  gentler  sex ; and  I do  hope, 
that  whenever  a great  scheme  of  art  education  is 
founded,  either  here  or  elsewhere,  there  shall  be  abso- 
lutely no  distinction  made  concerning  the  eligibility  or 
disqualification  of  sex  in  the  students.  It  is  only  fair 
and  honest  that  both  should  have  the  identically  same 
training  and  the  same  opportunities  for  becoming  “ valu- 
able persons,”  as  Prof.  Ware  expresses  it;  and  then  we 
shall  attain  to  one  great  result  at  any  rate : we  shall 
double  both  the  agency  and  area  of  art  culture,  and  pro- 
vide employment  for  a large  number  of  excellent  persons 
who  suffer  from  the  lack  of  it  now. 

At  South  Kensington,  where  there  are  more  lady 
pupils  than  men,  each  sex  has  its  separate  class  and 
practising  rooms  ; whilst  the  lecture-room,  examination- 
room,  library,  and  museum  are  common  to  both.  In  all 
the  examinations,  the  tests  are  the  same,  except  that 
ladies  are  not  required  to  take  the  papers  in  architectural 
and  machine  drawing.  The  success  of  the  lady  pupils, 
to  put  it  in  the  very  mildest  form,  is  greater  than  that 
of  the  male  students ; and  this  in  face  of  infinitely 
greater  difficulties,  arising  from  limitation  of  subjects  of 
study,  and  other  distinctions,  which  need  not  be  referred 
to  by  me.  The  mention  of  examinations  leads  me  to  the 
subject  of  graduation  and  degrees.  If  the  course  of 
study  in  the  national  school  of  design  be  systematized 
and  regulated  by  experience  in  other  branches  of  educa- 
tion, the  course  must  last  at  least  three  years,  with  dis- 
tinctive groups  of  study  for  each  year,  at  the  end  of 
which  would  be  a special  examination  upon  the  year's 


80 


ART  EDUCATION. 


work,  and,  at  the  termination  of  the  three  years,  the 
graduating  examination  for  a degree. 

I regard  this  professional  examination  for  a degree  in 
art  as  one  of  the  safeguards  of  society  from  mere  quacks 
and  charlatans.  The  bulk  of  people  who  have  the 
responsibility  of  choosing  teachers,  or  of  employing 
skilled  labor,  have  no  means  of  judging,  before  they  buy 
their  experience  practically,  whether  a candidate  for 
employment  is  qualified  or  not  for  the  work  proposed  to 
be  done.  Now,  although  a degree  is  not  an  all-sufficient 
proof  of  the  required  capacity  for  every  office,  it  is  at 
least  a guaranty  that  one  of  the  essential  conditions  of 
qualifications  has  been  complied  with,  and  that  the  can- 
didate is  educated,  tried,  and  stamped  by  a competent 
and  impartial  authority.  The  fact  that  this  means  of 
testing  men’s  powers  is  accepted  as  a convenience  in 
almost  all  professions  in  almost  all  countries  in  the 
world  whose  civilization  is  recognized,  is  perhaps  suffi- 
cient evidence  of  its  value.  And  that  especially  in 
education  some  definite  proof  is  required  of  training  and 
testing  before  important  charges  are  given  with  con- 
fidence to  school-teachers,  is  an  acknowledgment  that 
such  a method  of  assaying  is  a protection  to  society,  and 
a merited  distinction  for  proficiency.  I think,  that,  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  this  country,  three  degrees  are 
essential.  The  first,  that  which  is  awarded  by  the 
senate  of  the  national  school  of  design  after  the  three 
years’  course,  upon  examination  and  proved  competence, 
and  which  should  describe  the  art  attainments  of  the 
candidate,  by  some  such  designation  as  S.A.  ( Student  of 
Art).  The  second,  referring  either  to  the  practice  of  a 
branch  cf  art  — as  painting,  sculpture,  or  architecture  — 
successfully,  for  which  the  degree  of  M.A.  ( Master  of 
Arts))  might  be  conferred ; or,  for  successful  experience 
in  art  instruction,  the  second  degree,  D.A.  ( Doctor  of 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


81 


Arts) , might  be  substituted ; and  the  third  degree  of 
P.A.  ( Professor  of  Art)  should  be  reserved  as  a great 
distinction,  for  either  marked  success  in  the  practice  of 
one  of  the  three  branches  of  art,  — painting,  sculpture, 
or  architecture,  — or  the  very  highest  attainments  of  the 
teacher  who  has  given  proof  of  his  abilities  to  cover  suc- 
cessfully the  whole  field  of  art  education  by  practical 
educational  experience.  Now,  I know  that  liveries  and 
uniforms  are  not  popular  in  this  country,  and  that  men 
are  judged  by  their  acts  rather  than  by  their  titles.  Yet 
I also  know  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  every  bale  of  goods 
has  been  sampled,  labelled,  and  is  invoiced  to  the  cus- 
tomer, so  that  he  knows  what  is  purchased  and  the 
market-price  at  which  the  article  is  quoted ; and  this 
very  simple  arrangement  is  as  useful  in  professions  as  it 
is  in  trade,  and  as  much  to  be  relied  on  in  one  case  as 
it  is  in  the  other.  It  may  not  be  complete  proof  of  the 
quality  of  the  article  supplied  ; but  it  is  legal  evidence  of 
what  it  professes  to  be,  and  furnishes  a standard  by  which 
it  may  fairly  be  judged. 

Concerning  the  curriculum  of  study  for  such  a school, 
I need  say  little,  except  that,  supposing  scientific  de- 
partments of  it  to  exist,  the  first  year’s  work  of  the 
science  students  and  the  arts  students  should  be  iden- 
tical. The  two  subjects  are  so  intimately  related,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  fix  any  line  of  division  between  them  ; 
each  having  sections  vital  to  itself  which  are  clearly  in 
the  domain  of  the  other.  Thus  descriptive  geometry, 
botany,  sciagraphy  (or  the  science  of  shadows),  mathe- 
matical and  engineering  drawing,  chemistry,  anatomy, 
radial  and  parallel  and  isometric  projection,  — none  of 
these  can  be  described  as  art  studies ; yet  the  art 
knowledge  which  does  not  embrace  at  least  all  these  is 
imperfect,  shallow,  and  treacherous.  Again,  free-hand 
drawing,  coloring,  drawing  from  objects,  knowledge  of 


32 


ART  EDUCATION. 


many  processes  of  art  manufacture,  and  many  more 
which  might  be  named,  are  not  usually  regarded  as 
purely  scientific  subjects ; yet  I venture  to  say,  that  the 
governing  body  of  any  scientific  college  would  affirm, 
that,  without  considerable  proficiency  in  all  of  these  art 
studies,  the  scientific  man  has  been  very  imperfectly 
educated. 

And  thus  art  and  science  seem  indissolubly  united, 
the  one  being  the  ready  servant  of  man’s  necessities, 
the  other  ministering  to  his  enjoyment  of  the  beautiful ; 
and  their  relationship  to  each  other  is  that  of  the  body 
and  the  soul,  which  constitute  the  man  created  in  the 
image  of  God.  In  Boston  we  are  proud  to  own  the 
Institute  of  Technology  ; and  a few  yards  to  the  right  of 
it  is  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  Perhaps  a hun- 
dred yards  away  is  the  site  of  the  Fine  Arts  Museum  ; 
and,  either  as  part  of  it  or  as  an  adjunct  to  it,  will  be 
undoubtedly,  sooner  or  later,  a national  school  of  design, 
and  training-school  for  artists  and  art  masters.  There 
needs  to  be  added  a geological  museum  and  horticul- 
tural gardens,  a school  of  naval  science  and  architec- 
ture, and  of  anatomy  and  medicine ; and  then  there 
would  be  associated  the  various  agencies  which  form  a 
technical  university,  each  of  which,  as  a separate  college, 
would  have  its  special  students,  and  all  of  which  would 
undertake  a part  of  the  education  of  every  graduate  of 
the  university.  Such  institutions  as  this  are  rising  up 
in  other  countries,  or  already  exist  there  in  separate? 
organizations ; but  to  none  do  the}'  seem  to  me  so  impor- 
tant as  in  this ; to  no  part  of  this  country  are  they  of 
such  vital  necessity  as  the  New-England  manufacturing 
States : and  if  it  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  one  State  to 
provide  them,  it  is  clear  to  me  the  lot  has  fallen  upon 
Massachusetts ; and  the  site  of  the  Boston  Art  Museum 
is  within  a stone ’s-thi'ow  of  where  the  lot  fell. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


33 


It  is  no  mere  fanciful  assertion  to  say  that  the  time 
has  come  for  some  such  development  of  education,  which 
will  fit  men  for  their  Avork  in  this  world,  and  not  inter- 
fere Avith  their  prospects  in  the  next.  Look  at  the  ex- 
tent of  the  country  to  be  subdued  and  conquered,  and 
tell  me  whether  it  is  to  be  done  by  Latin  and  Greek,  or 
by  the  arts  and  sciences.  Turn  out  a thousand  gradu- 
ates from  this  modern  industrial  university  every  year, 
and  you  would  soon  double  the  producing  poAver  of  the 
land  and  the  people. 

The  country  is  hungering  and  thirsting  for  this  knowl- 
edge ; and  the  mere  offer  of  it  by  the  act  of  the  Massa-. 
chusetts  Legislature  has  been  seized  upon  generally 
throughout  the  State,  though  the  means  do  not  as  yet 
exist  here  for  complying  with  the  law,  and  ministering 
to  the  hunger  and  thirst  which  is  felt.  I quoted  Avliat 
Prof.  Bail  said  about  a gray-haired  mechanic’s  overpoAV- 
ering  him  with  thanks  for  a draAving-lesson,  and  saying, 
“ This  lesson  is  worth  hundreds  of  dollars  to  me.”  What 
Avould  it  have  been  worth  to  that  gray-haired  man'  if  it 
had  been  given  to  him  forty  years  ago  ? I see  in  the 
class-rooms  of  the  various  cities,  where  drawing  is 
being  taught,  more  old  men  who  have  felt  the  lack  of 
some  technical  instruction  than  of  young  men  avIio 
have  not  yet  discovered  its  value.  Ancient  mechanics, 
Avhose  hands  are  stiffening  with  decay,  and  whose  vision 
is  getting  dimmed  by  age,  requiring  to  be  assisted  by 
little  lamps  on  each  desk  in  addition  to  the  gaslight, 
are  very  frequent  among  the  students : that  tells  a tale 
to  those  Avho  are  able  to  see  and  understand  its  mean- 
ing. In  one  room,  where  I saAV  an  actual  preponderance 
of  old  men,  Avho  Avere  studying  the  same  subject  from 
the  same  book  which  I have  taught  to  children  of  eight 

o o 

years  old  and  upwards,  a manufacturer  made  the  state- 
ment, that  their  designs  cost  them  forty  thousand  dollars 


art  EDUCATION. 

a year,  every  dollar  been  in  operation 

tliat  manufacturei  pei  -P  witliin  a mile  of  the 

the  dollars  would  have  b en  hep  ^ , yeaI  ,. 

mill,  — a clear  gam  of  forty  t ^ forty  thousand 

the  country  m one  c.  , • d taxes  upon  our 

dollars  a year  » •"»  °^  ^ and  is  a sign  of 

ignorance  we  pa)  t Having  emancipated 

our  bondage  and  slavey  to  tern  = ^ oursd,es 

black  slaves,  it  seems  to  rr .c « « And  now  it 
from  this  particular  bun.  » ^ ^ dolug  to  remedy 

devolves  upon  me  o - . facilities  for  study  of  art. 
all  these  evils,  and  pi  on  ‘ ‘ Massachusetts  and  to 

Here  a tribute  must  be  paid . tc > * ^ tbem.  The 

Boston  for  wlvat  has  be ru  a i ^ ^ ^ uncertain  sound  ; 
legislative  trumpet  tliat  glorious  armor 

and  Boston  has  clothed  risCs  up  in  response 

with  which  a city  is  aua)  ^ And  there  can 

to  the  trumpet-call  to  o *7  ^ ^ lcad  and  command 

^“tTZirS^andinitint  submission  to  the  law,- 

than  drawing  was  made  m ^ winter  saw  evening 

schools  of  Boston  , >1  industrial  drawing  to  work- 

schools  established  to  teach  . and  teachers, 

ng-men.  For  the  instruction  of  mast  ^ now  in 

a normal  school  of  operation,  and  will  im- 

what  I consider  most  succe  L the  evening 

. prove  in  Us  efficiency  eveiy  « ' les  has  been 

classes,  an  exeeUent  assortment, of  0f  a collee- 

C'as  com^tTs  is  to  be  found  in  every  European 
school  of  art. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


Tliis  lias  been  an  honest  commencement,  and  will 
rapidly  develop  into  successful  operation  in  every  de- 
partment of  its  action.  With  patience  and  the  public 
confidence,  great  results  will  be  achieved  in  Boston. 
And  to  inspire  confidence,  let  me  say  that  the  Drawing 
Committee  of  the  School  Board  are  not  trying  theoreti- 
cal experiments,  concerning  the  issue  of  which  there 
may  be  a doubt : they  are  working  upon  an  already 
well-tried  system,  that  has  yet  to  make  its  first  failure. 
Whatever  difficulties  the  Committee  may  experience, 
and  the  limitations  it  will  be  bound  by,  will  arise  from 
not  having  sufficient  means  to  work  with,  and  highly- 
qualified  men  to  do  the  work.  Both  of  these  liin- 
derances  will  speedily  pass  away,  let  us  hope ; for  not 
until  they  do,  will  our  way  be  clear,  the  road  straight, 
the  rate  of  travel  satisfactory. 

I cannot  leave  this  part  of  this  subject  without  ex- 
pressing an  opinion,  that  to  individuals  society  owes 
much;  and  that  to  the  active  and  energetic  members 
of  the  Drawing  Committee  the  City  of  Boston  owes 
its  gratitude  for  their  unparalleled  labors  and  gener- 
osity in  the  promotion  of  art  education.  In  other 
parts  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  drawing-classes 
are  being  rapidly  established,  and  the  introduction  of 
drawing  in  the  public  schools  is  becoming  general. 
The  State  Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts  has 
purchased,  and  is  nowin  possession  of,  a small  travelling 
collection  of  examples  for  art  study,  which  is  being  ex- 
hibited every  week  in  some  provincial  city ; and  during 
this  exhibition  the  teachers  are  instructed  in  drawing, 
public  meetings  are  held,  at  which  the  subject  of  estab- 
lishing art  schools  is  discussed  and  considered,  and  the 
ways  and  means  are  pointed  out. 

One  of  the  means  of  ascertaining  what  has  been  done, 
and  the  equally-important  information  of  what  has  not 


86 


ART  EDUCATION. 


been  clone,  will  be  an  annual  exhibition  of  works  pro- 
duced by  different  drawing-classes  in  all  parts  of  the 
State,  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  termination  of  their 
sessions,  probably  in  May  or  June;  and  I would  pro- 
pose to  every  State  Board  of  Education  to  petition  the 
Legislature  for  an  appropriation  to  meet  the  necessary 
expenses  of  exhibition,  and  also  for  the  awarding  of 
some  recognition  of  merit,  both  to  successful  students 
and  successful  teachers.  This  will  be  national  action  at 
a very  trifling  expense,  which  will  be  a powerful  stimu- 
lus towards  excellence.  To  make  it  permanent  and  sat- 
isfactory, will  require  the  cordial  co-operation  of  local 
school  committees ; and  as  it  is  intended  for  the  com- 
mon advantage  of  all  who  are  helping  forward  the  gen- 
eral movement,  I do  not  doubt,  for  an  instant,  but  that 
the  co-operation  will  be  heartily  tendered. 

The  practicability  of  this  proposition,  and  the  good 
that  may  be  done  by  carrying  it  out,  has  already  been 
demonstrated  in  Massachusetts  by  a State's  exhibition 
of  the  works  produced  by  students  in  the  free  industrial 
drawing-classes  of  the  State  ; which  was  held  in  Boston 
on  May  16,  17,  and  18,  1872,  in  conjunction  with  that 
of  the  pupils  in  the  Boston  public  schools.  The  exhibi- 
tion attracted  many  thousands  of  visitors,  and  elicited 
very  general  approval.  A report  was  made  by  a Board 
of  Honorary  Examiners  upon  the  works  displayed ; and 
this  being  perhaps  the  first  recognition  by  any  American 
State  of  efforts  in  the  direction  of  exhibiting  and  judging 
industrial  drawings,  I quote  the  report  in  full:  — 

To  J.  D.  Puilurick,  Esq..  Chairman  of  the  Exhibition  Committee  of 

the  State  Board  of  Education , Massachusetts. 

Dear  Sir, — Having  been  appointed  to  examine  the  drawings 
displayed  in  the  exhibition  of  the  works  of  the  free  industrial  draw- 
ing-classes of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  and  to  award  marks  of 
distinction  to  the  most  deserving,  we  have  great  pleasure  in  submit- 
ting the  following  report. 


7, 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


The  exhibition  represents  the  results  obtained  in  the  free  evening 
drawing-schools  held  during  the  past  winter  in  Haverhill,  Lawrence, 
Lowell,  Lynn,  New  Bedford,  Newton,  Northampton,  Springfield, 
Taunton,  Worcester,  and  Boston.  There  are  no  works  of  the  classes 
in  Cambridge,  Charlestown,  Fall  River,  Fitchburg,  Newburyport, 
Pittsfield,  Salem,  and  Somerville.  We  understand  that  no  classes 
have  as  yet  been  organized  in  the  other  towns  included  within  the  scope 
of  the  statute,  — Chelsea,  Gloucester,  Holyoke,  and  North  Adams. 
The  exhibition  consists  of  about  six  hundred  drawings ; comprising 
exercises  from  the  blackboard  of  free-hand,  geometrical,  mechanical, 
isometrical,  and  constructional  drawing,  in  outline  and  tinted  ; draw- 
ing in  light  and  shade,  and  color  of  foliage ; figures,  animal  forms, 
machine-drawing,  and  architectural  tinting : designs  for  buildings,  for 
carpets,  &c. ; natural  objects,  geometric  solids  in  shadow  and  color, 
and  many  other  branches  of  industrial  art-study. 

The  difficulty  of  selecting  the  works  most  deserving  of  commenda- 
tion, where  the  general  range  of  merit  was  so  uniform  as  we  found  it, 
and  the  excellence  in  some  respects  so  great,  rendered  our  task  by  no 
means  an  easy  one.  We  found,  however,  drawings  which  seemed  to 
us  to  deserve  a mark  of  Excellence,  and  some  to  which  we  have  given 
an  Honorable  Mention. 

The  Lynn  school  is  represented  by  eight  drawings,  chiefly  of  in- 
strumental work.  The  mark  of  excellence  was  given  to  two,  and  an 
honorable  mention  to  three.  The  school  at  Lawrence  sends  thirteen 
drawings,  chiefly  mechanical  drawings  and  projections.  We  gave  the 
mark  of  excellence  to  one,  and  an  honorable  mention  to  four.  Both 
schools  show  evidence  of  good  and  cax-eful  instruction,  although  within 
a limited  field'.  The  works  specially  distinguished  by  marks  of  appro- 
val deserve  high  praise.  The  Lowell  school,  though  organized  only 
in  March,  exhibits  a large  amount  of  excellent  work.  Free-hand 
drawing  is  included,  and  has  been  carefully  taught.  The  application 
of  free-hand  drawing  to  the  details  of  machinery  deserves  special  notice 
and  commendation.  Men  are  naturally  most  easily  interested  in  the 
representation  of  objects  which  they  understand.  The  rest  of  the 
work  consisted  of  a design  for  a carpet,  projections  of  details  of 
machinery,  architectural  outlines,  &c.,  making  seventy  drawings  in 
all.  Of  these,  three  were  marked  excellent,  and  six  had  an  honor- 
able mention.  At  New  Bedford,  the  instruction  has  been  apparently 
limited  to  instrumental  drawing,  and  most  of  the  work  shown  is  of 
an  elementary  character.  But  there  are  some  excellent  specimens 
of  machine  drawing  in  color.  Out  of  twenty-four  drawings,  we  gave 


4 


38 


ART  EDUCATION. 


the  mark  of  excellence  to  two,  and  an  honorable  mention  to  three. 
The  work  exhibited  from  the  Worcester  school  is  large  in  amount, 
and  embraces  an  unusual  range  of  subjects,  in  which  the  free-hand 
work  bears  a large  proportion  to  the  mechanical  and  geometrical 
drawings,  and  is  itself  more  than  usually  varied,  consisting  of  out- 
lines of  ornament,  shaded  drawings  from  solid  models,  and  drawings 
from  groups  of  natural  objects.  The  evident  want  of  success  in  some 
of  this  work  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  absence  of  proper  models, 
without  which  it  is  useless  to  expect  satisfactory  results,  however 
capable  the  pupils,  and  however  skilful  the  teachers.  We  have  the 
less  hesitation  in  expressing  our  sense  of  these  detects,  as  this  defi- 
ciency, which  is  the  only  obstacle  to  success,  is  removable  at  will. 
Out  of  eighty  drawings  from  this  school,  one  received  the  mark  T>f 
excellent,  and  eleven  an  honorable  mention. 

The  work  from  Springfield,  though  limited  in  range,  consisting 
entirely  of  drawings  of  machinery,  is  remarkably  good  in  quality,  ex- 
hibiting also  an  unusual  uniformity  of  standard, — one  of  the  surest 
marks  of  good  discipline.  But  the  total  result  would  have  been 
much  more  satisfactory,  if  free-hand  work,  though  only  of  the  kind 
of  which  we  have  spoken  as  distinguishing  the  Lowell  school,  had 
been  added.  Out  of  twenty  drawings,  we  found  two  to  be  excellent, 
and  gave  an  honorable  mention  to  three. 

The  school  at  Taunton  is  distinguished  by  the  number  and  the 
excellence  of  the  drawings,  in  both  which  respects  it  stands  next  to 
the  Boston  school.  Out  of  a hundred  and  thirty  drawings,  room 
could  be  allbrded  in  the  exhibition  for  only  seventy-nine ; but  of 
these,  five  received  the  mark  excellent,  and  fourteen  an  honorable 
mention.  Though  the  absence  of  free-hand  work  is  here  again  to  be 
regretted,  the  drawings  exhibit  much  uniformity  of  excellence  and 
great  variety  of  subject.  A large  portion,  moreover,  of  the  best  work 
is  drawn  from  blackboard  instruction,  evincing  a high  degree  of 
faithfulness  and  competency  in  the  teaching.  The  works  of  the 
classes  in  Haverhill  and  Northampton,  though  showing  diligence  and 
fidelity,  are  so  limited,  both  in  number  and  range  of  subject,  as  not  to 
call  for  special  remark.  This  is  doubtless  in  great  part  due  to  the 
fact,  that  the  exhibition  was  not  announced  until  the  drawings  of  the 
year  had  already  been  dispersed,  so  that  it  was  difficult  to  get  together 
a fair  representation  of  the  year’s  work.  Eight  drawings  are  shown 
from  each  town,  Haverhill  receiving  two  honorable  mentions,  and 
Northampton  one  excellent,  and  two  honorable  mentions.  The 
Newton  class  appears  to  have  been  well  taught  in  elementary  work, 


' GENERAL  REVIEW. 


39 


the  students  not  being  required  to  finish  their  drawings.  We  awarded 
one  honorable  mention  to  this  class. 

The  Boston  school  stands  first,  both  in  the  number  of  the  drawings 
— furnishing  two  hundred  and  eighty-two  altogether,  or  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  whole  collection  — and  in  the  variety  and  excellence  of 
the  work,  especially  the  free-hand  work.  The  mark  of  excellent  was 
given  to  six,  and  an  honorable  mention  to  thirty-five.  The  examples 
of  ornamental  figure  work,  both  from  the  flat  copy  and  from  models, 
are  quite  beyond  what  any  of  the  other  schools  have  to  show.  The 
architectural  and  engineering  work  is  also  to  be  noticed.  This  excel- 
lence is  to  be  mainly  imputed,  it  seems  to  us,  to  the  very  superior 
advantages  these  classes  have  enjoyed  in  the  respect  of  casts,  — solid 
models  and  flat  copies.  It  is  not  that  the  instruction  has  been  better 
here  than  elsewhere,  but  that  proper  appliances  have  rendered  it 
more  efficient. 

This  is,  in  our  judgment,  the  key  to  the  whole  question.  It  is 
perfectly  plain  that  there  is  in  the  State  no  lack  of  ability  on  the 
part  either  of  pupils  or  teachers,  and  no  want  of  support  on  the  part 
of  the  public.  The  results  already  achieved  are  excellent,  — remark- 
ably so,  if  we  consider,  that  in  most  of  these  towns  there  was  no 
proper  preparation  for  the  work,  and  no  applicances  whatever,  except 
what  the  teachers  could  bring  in  their  hands.  There  is  no  reason 
why  any  of  the  schools  here  repesented  should  not,  in  future,  present 
work  equal  to  the  best.  A moderate  outlay  of  money  upon  proper 
models,  suited  to  the  special  wants  of  each  place,  would  put  all  these 
schools  upon  an  absolutely  equal  footing.  The  marked  superiority 
in  almost  every  department  of  the  work  of  the  Boston  school  is  one 
that  ought  to  disappear  entirely  in  future  years.  The  exhibition 
must  convince  every  visitor  that  this  is  the  point  upon  which  the 
whole  movement  hangs.  Nothing  but  the  want  of  suitable  models 
can  prevent  a great  and  permanent  success. 

We  are,  very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servants, 

Charles  C.  Perkins,  I 

William  R.  Ware,  j - Board  of  Examiners. 

Walter  Smith,  ) 

May  16,  1872. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ART  TEACHING  IN  PUBLIC  SQIIOOLS. 

TEACHING  OF  ELEMENTARY  DRAWING. 

rp HE  act  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Legislature, 
-L  which  has  paved  the  way  for  a general  recognition 
of  the  value  of  drawing  as  an  educational  subject  in 
America,  is  short  enough  and  important  enough  to  be 
here  quoted.  It  is  as  follows : — 

Chatter  24*,  Acts  oe  1870. 

Section  1.  The  first  section  of  chapter  thirty-eight  of  the  Gene- 
ral Statutes  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  include  Drawing  among  the 
branches  of  learning  which  are  by  said  section  required  to  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools.  * 

Sect.  2.  Anycity  or  town  may,  and  every  city  and  town  having 
more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants  shall,  annually  make  provision  for 
giving  free  instruction  in  industrial  or  mechanical  drawing  to  persons 
over  fifteen  yeaYs  of  age,  either  in  day  or  evening  schools,  under  the 
direction  of  the  school  committee. 

Sect.  3.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 

[ Approved  May  16,  1870- 

By  this  law  of  Massachusetts,  art  education  has  been 
ingrafted  upon  its  far-famed  system  of  public  instruction, 
and  henceforward  will  form  a part,  and,  I hope  and 
believe,  no  unimportant  section,  of  its  excellent  organi- 
zation. Provision  for  the  instruction  in  drawing  of 

40 


SUGGESTION  FOR  A 

VILLAGE  SCHOOL  OF  ART, 

FROM  THE 

Minton  Memorial  Building, 

CALLED  THE 

School  of  Art,  Stoke-upon-Trent, 


CROUMD  ru>0ft 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


41 


teachers  and  children  in  the  public  schools,  and  of  adults  * 
in  the  night  classes,  will  be  arranged  for,  as  opportuni- 
ties occur  and  teachers  can  be  found.  The  passing  of  this 
law,  and  the  efforts  made  to  comply  with  it,  will,  it  is 
supposed,  create  a desire  for  information  concerning  art 
education,  of  especial  interest  just  now ; and,  having  been 
appointed  by  the  City  of  Boston  and  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts’to  assist  in  their  development  of  art  education. 

I would  take  the  opportunity  of  stating  that  I believe 
the  choice  of  the  art  authorities  of  the  United  King- 
dom, upon  the  request  of  the  Boston  school-board,  fell 
upon  me  for  recommendation  to  the  appointments  I 
now  hold  because,  though  acquainted  with  the  national 
system  of  my  own  country  and  of  other  European 
States,  I am  not  committed  to,  nor  do  I wholly  approve 
of,  anjr  one  of  them,  but  believe,  that,  in  the  construction 
of  a system  in  a country  where  the  subject  is  new,  we 
can  adapt  the  good  parts  of  all  the  old  methods  to  the 
requirements  of  this  country,  and  omit  all  the  bad  parts. 
And  there  can  be  no  reason  why  the  thoroughness 
which  characterizes  the  general  education  of  America 
should  not  influence  and  give  tone  to  any  instruction  in 
technical  subjects  which  may  be  added  to  it.  Whilst 
we  may  thus  profit  by  the  experience  of  other  nations, 
having  greater  experience  than  our  own,  there  will  be 
many  features  of  this  country  and  of  society  so  superior 
to  theirs,  and  so  much  more  fayorable  to  the  development 
and  advancement  of  education,  that  I look  forward  to  a 
future  in  which  our  field  of  art  education  shall  in  no 
prominent  part  be  a reflex  of  others,  but  be  a combina- 
tion of  excellences  that  will  offer  a model  for  their  imi- 
tation. 

So  much  of  a general  introduction  I conceived  to  be 
necessary  before  speaking  practically  on  the  subject 
we  are  about  to  consider. 

4* 


42 


ART  EDUCATION. 


That  subject  briefly  described  is  Art  Education  in 
Public  Schools. 

The  kind  of  drawing  which  the  State  of  Massachu- 
setts requires  that  its  citizens  shall  have  an  opportunity 
of  studying,  is  called  ‘■‘industrial  drawing;  ” and  wisely 
so  called,  for  in  that  lies  a justification  of  its  public 
action  in  the  matter. 

It  is  so  described,  I apprehend,  to  distinguish  it  from 
those  more  ornamental  or  professional  branches  of  art 
which  people  study  rather  as  an  amusement  or  gratifica- 
tion, or  as  a lucrative  profession,  than  as  an  important 
element  in  the  success  of  trades  and  manufactures. 
Economists  are  agreed  that  it  fairly  falls  within  the  scope 
of  government  in  any  civilized  country  to  initiate  move- 
ments by  which  the  trades  or  manufactures  carried  on 
by  its  subjects  shall  be  improved  in  character  and  in- 
creased in  value,  and  thus,  through  a higher  appreciation, 
find  a wider  market  for  their  consumption.  The  pros- 
perity of  the  many  is  the  argument  upon  which  this 
agreement  is  founded.  The  principle  thus  acknowl- 
edged has  led  some  of  the  most  far-seeing  and  enlight- 
ened  of  modern  governments  to  establish  systems  of  art 
education,  with  a view  of  improving  all  branches  of 
industrial  trades  and  manufactures,  having  regard  to  the 
ultimate  inllueuce  on  production  and  sale,  as  well  as 
increased  value  of  exports  and  articles  of  home  consump- 
tion. The  success  of  these  experiments  has  been  so 
great,  that  several  European  States  at  the  present  time 
owe  their  prosperity  in  no  slight  degree  to  the  artistic 
excellence  of  their  manufactures,  brought  about  mainly 
by  their  cultivation  of  art  education. 

The  time  has  arrived  when  the  government  of  the 
State  -of  Massachusetts  has  viewed  the  matter  in  the 
same  light ; and  thus  we  are  upon  the  threshold  of  a 
new  fabric,  — a sj'stem  of  art  education  for  the  State, 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


43 


which  will  undoubtedly  foreshadow  a national  system 
of  secondary  education. 

The  means  whereby  such  a system  would  be  best 
organized  to  meet  the  requirements'  of  all  classes  of 
society,  and  keep  supply  and  demand  in  their  true  rela- 
tionship, has  been  a great  problem  to  the  educationists 
of  this  locality,  as  it  has  been  previously  to  the  educa- 
tionists of  the  Old  World.  There  are  three  sections  of 
the  public  to  be  educated,  — children,  adult  artisans, 
and  the  public  generally,  who  come  under  neither  of 
the  first  two  divisions.  How  this  has  been  provided 
for  in  most  of  the  European  States  I may  here  shortly 
describe.  For  children,  elementary  drawing  is  taught 
as  a part  of  general  education  in  most  of  the  public 
.schools ; for  adult  artisans,  night  schools  and  classes 
have  been  established  in  almost  all  toAvns  or  populous 
villages  ; and  for  the  general  public,  museums,  galleries 
of  art,  and  courses  of  public  lectures  on  art  subjects,  are 
becoming  general.  Upon  the  comparative  value  of  these 
several  means  there  may  be  and  is  much  difference  of 
opinion ; but  upon  one  point  there  is  a general  agree- 
ment, viz.,  that  to  make  national  art  education  possible , 
it  must  commence  with  the  children  in  public  schools. 

After  several  unsuccessful  experiments,  that  is  the 
conclusion  at  which,  twgnty  years  ago,  the  educationists 
of  Great  Britain  arrived ; and  the  progress  which  has 
since  been  made  in  art  education,  and  the  consequent 
improvement  of  industrial  art,  is  evidence  enough  that 
the  problem  had  been  solved,  and  that  they  were  on  the 
right  track.  To  establish  schools  of  art  and  art  gal- 
leries before  the  mass  of  the  community  were  taught  to 
draw  was  like  opening  a university  before  people  knew 
the  alphabet ; but  to  provide  both  of  these  agencies  in 
conjunction  with,  or  as  a continuation  of,  the  instruction 
in  drawing  in  public  schools,  was  like  a logical  sequence, 


44 


ART  EDUCATION. 


going  in  rational  order  from  strength  to  strength  of  an 
unbroken  chain ; from  bud  to  branch,  and  from  branch 
to  flower  of  natural  educational  growth. 

Whilst  England  has  appropriated,  in  Mr.  Foster’s 
scheme,  all  the  features  of  the  Massachusetts  system  of 
general  education  that  are  worth  any  thing,  we  are  bor- 
rowing from  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  from  other  coui> 
tries,  the  most  valuable  portions  of  their  experience  in 
technical  education ; and  I venture  to  prophesy,  that, 
upon  a better  general  basis,  we  shall  erect  an  infinitely 
better  superstructure,  so  soon  as  the  development  of 
public  opinion  in  this  country  will  furnish  us  with  the 
means  for  its  accomplishment. 

What  has  been  done  here  in  the  way  of  instruction  in 
night  classes  for  adults  is  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the 
need  of  additional  efforts,  and  has  shown  the  extent  of 
the  field  awaiting  culture  at  our  hands;  and  the  fact 
that  already  a Boston  museum  of  fine  and  industrial 
art  is  on  the  way,  and  its  foundations  laid  on  a broad 
and  comprehensive  plan,  is  a final  proof  that  eventually 
no  feature  of  a perfect  scheme  will  be  wanting  to  com- 
plete the  fabric  of  art  education. 

Though  these  secondary  agencies  arc  matter  of  in- 
terest in  a consideration  of  the  whole  subject,  it  is  not 
they  especially  that  we  have  now  to  consider. 

The  teaching  of  drawing  in  public  schools  is  that  phase 
of  the  question  concerning  which  I wish  to  speak  now. 
How,  with  our  present  means,  and  in  a reasonable 
time,  is  it  to  be  brought  about?  and  what  can  be  done 
to  make  the  teaching  general  ? 

Here,  at  this  point,  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with 
the  same  difficulty  that  has  confronted  the  pioneers  of 
art  education  elsewhere ; viz.,  Who  is  to  teach  drawing 
in  the  public  schools?  and  the  question  must  be  an- 
swered iu  the  same  way.  To  this  there  can  be  but 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


45 


one  reply ; which  is,  There  can  he  no  special  teachers 
of  drawing  as  a separate  subject,  any  more  than  of  writ- 
ing’ or  arithmetic  as  separate  subjects ; but  the  general 
teachers  themselves  must  learn  and  teach  elementary 
drawing  to  the  children,  in  the  same  way  they  learn 
and  teach  other  subjects.  It  will  only  be  by  having  a 
teacher  of  drawing  in  every  class-room  in  every  school 
in  the  country,  that  all  the  children  can  be  taught  to 
draw ; and  this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  making 
the  general  teachers  include  drawing  among  their  sub- 
jects of  instruction.  That  is  how  the  difficulty  has 
been  met  in  other  countries,  and  it  is  the  only  way  pos- 
sible of  meeting  it  here.  Now,  if  elementary  drawing 
were  either  an  abstruse  subject,  or  as  difficult  of  acqui- 
sition as  a new  language,  it  would  seem  something  like 
a hardship,  that  teachers,  whose  daily  labor  is  so  great, 
and  whose  leisure  is  so  scarce,  should  be  expected  to 
increase  their  labors  and  sacrifice  their  leisure  to  learn 
this  new  subject.  But  it  lias  been  found  in  Europe,  that 
a valuable  and  sufficient  power  of  drawing  can  be  ac- 
quired by  teachers  who  have  the  desire  to  learn  in  a 
comparatively  short  time,  and  without  any  very  great 
sacrifice  either  of  their  leisure  or  their  patience.  At 
the  present  time,  in  the  Boston  Normal  Art  School,  the 
teachers  of  the  city  are  receiving  one  lesson  of  one  hour 
on  alternate  weeks,  which,  if  they  work  out  the  exer- 
cises on  each  lesson,  is  in  my  opinion  sufficient  time  to 
give  ; and  I calculate  that  they  will  have  passed  through 
a course  of  instruction  in  two  subjects,  — free-hand  and 
model  drawing,  — qualifying  them  to  give  their  pupils 
lessons  in  the  same,  after  one  year’s  course  of  study. 

Another  year  the  subjects  of  geometrical  and  perspec- 
tive drawing  will  be  taken  up  ; and,  though  these  sub- 
jects will  entail  a little  more*  home-work,  they  will  be 
got  through  in  the  sessions  of  one  year. 


46 


ART  EDUCATION. 


I can  hardly  suppose  that  any  teacher  would  consider 
such  an  amount  of  attendance  on  two  courses  of  lessons 
as  too  great  a price  to  pay  for  the  qualification  to  teach 
elementary  drawing ; and  I would  desire  to  inspire 
teachers  with  confidence  in  their  own  art  powers,  even 
if  yet  undeveloped,  by  saying,  that,  to  those  who  are 
intimately  acquainted  with  educational  processes,  as 
teachers  must  be,  the  labor  of  acquiring  skill  in  drawing 
is  reduced  to  a minimum,  whilst  the  result  is  a practical 
certainty.  As  they  have  great  experience  in  teaching 
other  subjects,  I have  always  found  school-teachers,  even 
with  a very  limited  power  of  drawing,  to  make  by  far 
the  best  teachers  of  drawing  ; and  what  they  themselves 
acquire  without  difficulty,  they  teach  most  successfully. 

Drawing  is  in  many  respects  like  a language,  — a visi- 
ble language,  the  language  of  form  ; having  but  two 
letters  in  its  alphabet,  — the  straight  line  and  the  curve  ; 
in  this  respect  like  our  own  written  words,  made  up  of 
combinations  of  straight  and  curved  lines,  — with  this 
difference,  that,  whilsfr  a word  suggests  the  name  and 
thought,  drawing  suggests  the  thing  itself.  Both  draw- 
ing and  writing  depend  for  attainment  on  the  same  fac- 
ulty,— the  faculty  of  imitation;  though  drawing,  being 
simpler  in  its  elements  than  writing,  is  the  more  easy 
of  acquirement.  It  has  been  amply  demonstrated  that 
every  person  who  can  be  taught  to  write  can  be  taught 
to  draw  ; and  where  both  are  taught  simultaneously, 
they  assist  each  other,  — success  in  one  being  a certain 
indication  of  success  in  both.  . 

Imitative  power  is  common  to  the  human  race,  and 
exists  in  children  before  they  can  either  walk  or  speak : 
it  is  developed  so  early,  that,  from  the  moment  a child 
can  hold  a pencil,  it  may  be  taught  to  imitate  by  draw- 
ing the  forms  it  sees.  Those  children  whom  it  is  found 
impossible  to  teach  to  write,  it  would  be  waste  of  time 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


47 


to  attempt  to  teach  to  draw ; for  want  of  capacity  in 
the  first  must  proceed  from  some  physical  deficiency 
which  would  prove  fatal  also  to  success  in  drawing. 
But  for  the  rest,  — and  experience  convinces  us  they  are 
a somewhat  considerable  majority,  — as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  go  to  school,  so  soon  should  they  begin  learning 
to  draw  ; and  they  will  be  found  to  take  to  and  acquire  it 
best  who  commence  it  earliest,  and  pursue  it  the  most 
systematically  through  the  whole  school  course.  Neither 
is  any  special  gift  of  more  than  usual  taste  required  to 
enable  persons  to  become  excellent  draughtsmen.  It  is 
a matter  of  mere  conjecture  whether  such  gifts  exist  at 
all ; and  it  is  certain,  if  they  do  exist,  their  possession 
is  of  no  account  whatever  when  compared  with  perse- 
verance and  a determination  to  succeed.  The  best 
draughtsmen  I have  known  began  to  draw  at  about  five 
years  old  or  earlier ; and  it  is  a singular  commentary  on 
genius,  which  is  supposed  to  be  heaven-born,  that  those 
men  who  are  most  universally  acknowledged  to  be  gen- 
iuses have  spent  their  industrious  lives  in  self-improve- 
ment, ignoring  their  supposed  endowments,  and  working 
patiently  like  journeymen  whilst  learning  a trade. 

Much  undoubtedly  depends  upon  the  way  in  which 
teaching  is  carried  on  ; that  definite  objects  should  be 
sought  for,  and  the  various  steps  be  graduated  in  diffi- 
culty, though  well  defined  in  purpose.  My  own  experi- 
ence leads  me  to  think  there  are  good  points  in  even 
very  opposite  methods,  and  failings  in  all.  It  is  impos- 
sible, so  long  as  human  nature  is  varied  in  individuals, 
that  any  method  of  instruction  should  apply  equally  well 
to  a number  of  different  characters,  or  develop  the  fac- 
ulties of  all.  A cast-iron  method  or  sj^stem  presupposes 
such  a similarity  of  disposition  and  faculties  in  pupils  as 
never  existed  nor  is  likely  to  exist ; and  unless  a sj^stem, 
whilst  adhering  closely  to  principles,  is  at  the  same  time 


48 


ART  EDUCATIOX. 


elastic  in  practice,  it  will  probably  cramp  and  destroy 
the  faculties  it  was  intended  to  develop.  In  this  matter 
much  depends  upon  the  teacher,  — a good,  kind,  and 
sympathetic  teacher  producing  better  results  upon  a bad 
system  than  a bad  teacher  upon  the  best  of  methods. 

There  are,  however,  some  schemes  of  art  instruction 
which  have  been  more  widely  tried  than  others,  and 
experiments  in  them  more  perfected  by  long  practice. 

The  old  drawing-master's  method  of  giving  shaded 
copies  to  beginners,  without  any  arrangement  of  exam- 
ples or  sequence  in  subjects,  is  followed  no  longer  in  any 
national  schools  in  Europe,  or  in  any  public  schools 
under  government  inspection.  The  use  of  Hat  exam- 
ples only,  without  extensive  illustration  on  and  explana- 
tion from  the  blackboard,  is  also  becoming  a thing  of  the 
past.  What  is  now  commonly  described  as  the  English 
blackboard  system  of  teaching  elementary  drawing  is 
perhaps  the  most  elastic  and  efficient  of  methods  for 
class-teaching;  but  it  should  not  supersede  individual 
instruction,  simultaneously  given  ; nor  can  it  be  used 
successfully  without  the  concurrent  use  of  text-books  in 
the  hands  of  each  pupil  to  supply  accurate  illustrations 
of  the  course  of  study,  and  to  encourage  home-work  in 
support  of  school-work.  Unless  a pupil  can  be  induced 
to  work  sometimes  wholly  by  himself,  he  never  attains 
to  self-reliance,  nor  learns  how  to  master  an  entirely 
new  difficulty  without  resorting  to  assistance  from  other 
people. 

The  group  of  art  instruction  in  elementary  drawing 
which  is  considered  suitable  to  the  powers  of  the  pupils 
in  day  schools  comprises  five  subjects,  and  includes: 
1.  Free-hand  Drawing.  2.  Model  <>r  Object  Drawing. 
3.  Memory  Drawing.  4.  Geometrical  Drawing.  5. 
Perspective.  A thorough  grounding  in  these  subjects  is 
one  of  the  best  preparations  for  any  further  study  of  the 


burslem:  school  of  art. 

(WEDGEWOOD  MEMORIAE.) 


FRONT  tLtVA  T I ON 


Scale  of  FteO 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


49 


higher  branches  of  art  education.  A pupil,  having  passed 
examination  in  such,  would  be  ready  to  take  hold  of  the 
instruction  in  schools  of  art,  or  even  to  continue  his 
studies  by  himself  in  more  advanced  subjects.  The 
group  of  five  subjects  named  is  that  in  which  the  public 
school-teachers  of  England  have  to  become  proficient, 
and  for  a successful  examination  in  which  the  govern- 
ment grants  a drawing  certificate,  stating  that  the  holder 
is  competent  to  give  instruction  in  drawing  in  public 
schools. 

The  adaptation  of  this  course  of  study  to  the  graded 
schools  of  this  country  is  not  a difficult  matter,  the  mo- 
ment the  corps  of  teachers  become  qualified  to  teach 
drawing  ; and  it  can  be  commenced  at  once  in  those  sub- 
jects which  the  teachers  themselves  are  practising,  or 
have  already  become  proficient  in.  The  order  in  which 
the  subjects  are  usually  taken  will  decide  the  suitability 
of  each  to  the  different  schools. 

A simple  arrangement  would  be  as  follows,  giving 
progressive  subjects  in  each  grade  of  school:  — 

In'  Primary  Schools. — Free-hand,  Model,  and  Memory  Drawing, 
from  the  blackboard  and  from  copies  in  books,  the  objects  to 
be  geometrically  drawn  ; i.e.,  having  no  perspective  effects  in 
them. 

In  Grammar  Schools-.  — Model  Drawing  from  the  blackboard,  and 
from  copies  showing  the  principles  of  perspective,  and  from 
real  objects;  Memory  Drawing  ; Geometrical  Drawing  of  plane 
geometrical  problems  with  instruments  ; Free-hand  enlarge- 
ments and  reductions  from  flat  copies  of  historical  and  other 
ornament,  in  outline,  to  teach  styles  of  art. 

In  High  and  Normal  Schools. — Memory,  Model,  and  Perspective 
Drawing;  shading,  coloring ; drawing  from  casts,  from  natural 
plants  and  elementary  designs. 

I propose  to  describe  in  what  manner  and  to  what 
degree  these  subjects  may  be  taught  in  the  three  grades 
of  schools. 


5 


50 


ART  EDUCATION. 


I.  — Primary  Schools. 

FREE-HAND  OUTLINE  DRAWING. 

In  the  very  earliest  lessons  to  the  youngest  children, 
drawings  on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher  are  the  only 
examples  used  ; the  illustrations  being  vertical,  horizon- 
tal, and  oblique  lines,  singly  and  in  simple  combinations, 
such  as  angles,  squares,  triangles,  and  the  division  of 
straight  lines  into  equal  or  proportionate  parts  ; curved 
lines  associated  with  straight  lines  on  the  simplest  sym- 
metrical arrangement.  That  is  the  commencement  of 
free-hand  drawing,  the  pupils  drawing  on  their  slates 
until  the  first  difficulties  are  over.  A moderate  use  of 
Roman  capital  letters  is  not  objectionable  for  copies ; 
but  too  frequent  use  is  wearisome.  Monograms  and 
initial  letters  are  also  interesting  subjects  ; and  if  the 
teacher  takes  his  own  initials,  and  makes  an  ornamental 
monogram  of  them,  and  asks  his  pupils  to  do  the  same 
with  their  initials,  he  will  set  them  all  drawing  at  home 
enthusiastically.  Very  young  children  will  draw  best 
those  forms  in  which  there  are  the  fewest  possible  lines, 
and  those  lines  expressing  the  forms  of  objects  the}’ 
are  most  familiar  with,  — apples  and  pears,  common 
crockery-ware,  leaves  of  trees  and  flowers,  and  such- 
like. The  older  pupils  who  are  drawing  free-hand  out- 
line from  the  board  upon  paper  should  have  their  sub- 
jects alternated  with  flat  copies,  to  be  drawn  either  the 
same  size  as  the  originals,  or  enlarged  a definite  propor- 
tion, — either  a third  or  a fourth,  or  by  measure,  as  an  inch 
or  two  inches  in  height  and  proportionately  in  width.  As 
all  the  blackboard  lessons  are  exercises  in  the  reduction 
of  forms,  it  is  well  to  vary  the  lessons  by  practice  of  the 
identical  size  and  by  enlargements.  I have  found  it  not 
to  be  a good  custom  to  keep  children  drawing  on  slates 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


51 


longer  than  the  time  when  they  attain  the  power  of 
fairly  balancing  the  forms  given  them  to  copy.  It  is 
so  easy  to  rub  out  errors  upon  slates  that  carelessness 
often  results  from  too  long  practice  on  them. 

In  the  choice  of  examples,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  diagrams  from  objects  should  be  represented  geo- 
metrically, not  by  views  of  the  objects  as  seen  in  per- 
spective, until  the  pupils  have  arrived  at  drawing  from 
objects.  The  principal  use  of  free-hand  outline  draw- 
ing is  to  teach  pupils  the  proper  use  of  materials,  the 
names  of  lines  and  forms,  and  to  educate  the  eye  in 
judging  of  proportion;  also  to  inculcate  perception  of 
the  beautiful  in  curves  and  forms  of  objects. 

The  time  given  per  week  to  drawing  should  not  be 
less  than  two  hours.  With  the  youngest  children,  the 
length  of  each  lesson  should  not  be  more  than  half  an 
hour,  i.e.,  four  short  lessons  per  week ; with  those  a. 
little  older,  three  lessons  of  forty  minutes  each  ; and 
with  the  oldest  pupils  who  draw  upon  paper,  two  lessons 
of  an  hour  each. 

It  is  of  some  importance,  in  maintaining  interest  in 
the  lessons,  that  each  should  be  complete  in  itself,  — the 
exercise  be  begun  and  finished  in  the  allotted  time  ; and, 
if  this  be  found  difficult,  it  is  better  to  take  simpler 
examples,  with  less  work  in  them,  than  either  to  lengthen 
the  time  given,  or  leave  the  exercise  unfinished.  In 
the  same  class,  if  some  pupils  draw  better  than  others, 
the  best  may  be  allowed  to  draw  in  books,  and  the  more 
backward  on  slates.  Each  exercise  should  be  criticised 
by  the  teacher  during  the  lesson,  in  addition  to  the 
general  criticism  from  the  blackboard,  thus  combining 
individual  with  class  instruction. 

The  object  given  as  a lesson  should  be  well  drawn  on 
the  blackboard  before  the  lesson  begins  ; and  the  teacher, 
in  giving  the  lesson,  should  commence  by  explaining  its 


52 


ART  EDUCATION. 


proportions  and  general  character,  and  then  draw  it 
again,  step  by  step,  during  the  process  of  the  lesson, 
being  followed  by  the  class,  line  for  line,  as  the  form 
develops  on  the  board. 

The  standard  of  quality  in  outline  varies  in  different 
countries  ; but  whether  a thick  or  thin  line  be  allowed, 
it  must  be  the  same  thickness  or  thinness  everywhere  ; 
and  the  best  line,  in  my  opinion,  is  a thin,  gray,  un- 
broken line,  without  the  slightest  variation  in  a whole 
drawing,  either  in  color  or  breadth. 

MODEL-DRAWING  IN  OUTLINE. 

The  model  drawing  in  primary  schools  should  be  of 
an  exceedingly  simple  character ; for  into  the  proper 
practice  of  it  perspective  must  more  or  less  enter.  Only 
the  older  children  ought  to  attempt  it,  and  the  objects 
used  to  be  as  much  as  possible  those  which  appear  of 
the  same  form  on  all  sides.  These  may  be  defined  as 
such  objects  as  are  turned  in  a lathe,  or  made  upon  a 
potter’s  wheel : thus  a cylinder,  a sphere,  a cone,  in 
geometric  shapes;  a vase  without  a handle,  a goblet 
or  a wine-glass,  a basin,  a saucer,  a round  bottle  ; or 
wooden  vessels,  such  as  a bucket  or  a round  box.  These 
have  the  double  advantage  of  being  symmetrical,  en- 
abling the  teacher  and  pupils  to  use  a central  line  in 
drawing  them ; and  they  will  be  seen  alike  by  all  the 
pupils,  so  that  the  explanations  and  demonstrations 
given  on  the  blackboard  will  apply  to  all  the  drawings 
made. 

The  models  used  should  be  painted  white,  which  dis- 
plays the  form  better  than  any  color.  If  rectangular 
solids  be  used,  such  as  cubes,  oblong  blocks,  prisms, 
square  boxes,  chairs,  or  such-like,  the  teacher  will  find 
himself  plunged  at  once  into  all  the  difficulties  of  linear 
perspective,  beyond  the  understanding  of  children  so 
young  as  those  in  primary  schools. 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


53 


With  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching,  and  imple- 
ments used,  what  I have  said  with  reference  to  free-hand 
drawing  from  flat  examples  on  the  blackboard  applies 
similarly  to  object  drawing.  Care  must  be  taken  in  set- 
ting a model  for  the  class,  that  it  is  not  placed  so  near 
to  any  pupil  as  to  give  him  a distorted  view,  or  so  far 
away  as  to  be  seen  with  difficulty.  The  best  position 
with  regard  to  height  is,  that  the  top  of  the  object 
should  be  at  least  six  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
pupil’s  eye.  A set  of  three  or  four  dozen  objects  should 
be  kept  in  each  school,  in  a cupboard  or  cabinet  reserved 
for  the  purpose ; and  teachers  might  occasionally  ex- 
change models  of  equal  value  with  each  other,  so  as  to 
give  freshness  and  variety  to  the  subjects  : otherwise  the 
pupils  may  get  wearied  of  drawing  the  same  objects 
over  and  over  again.  The  models  should  include  com- 
mon  forms  such  as  are  frequent!  seen  by  the  pupils,  as 
pitchers,  teacups  and  saucers,  and  other  objects  before- 
named. 

Combined  with  free-hand  and  model  drawing,  the 
definitions  of  plane  geometric  figures  should  be  taught, 
and  are  best  taught,  by  being  drawn  as  exercises,  as  well 
as  learned  by  heart.  This  will  be  preparation  for  geomet- 
rical drawing,  to  be  afterwards  learned  in  the  grammar 
schools,  as  well  as  being  of  great  value  in  imparting  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  common  forms. 


DRAWING  FROM  MEMORY. 

The  third  subject  for  the  primary  schools  is  drawing 
from  memory. 

I attach  the  very  highest  importance'  to  the  systematic 
development  of  memory-drawing  as  an  element  of  edu- 
cation ; and  art  education  is  incomplete  without  it. 
Beginning  with  geometric  forms  of  a given  size,  it  will 
be  found  possible  to  lead  even  the  children  in  primary 

5* 


54 


ART  EDUCATION. 


schools  to  reproduce  entirely  from  memory  the  copies 
which  they  have  already  drawn,  however  elaborate  and 
full  of  detail  they  may  be.  The  memory  exercises  will 
consist  of  special  examples  or  of  recently-finished  draw- 
ings, the  proportions  of  which  will  be  easily  remem- 
bered ; though  at  first  it  may  be  necessary  that  the 
teacher  should  describe  to  the  class  some  of  the  leading 
characters  of  the  example  given,  or  sketch  it  freely  on 
the  blackboard,  to  refresh  the  memory  before  the  pupils 
proceed  to  draw  it.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  exercise, 
the  best  and  worst  efforts  should  be  taken  to  the  board, 
and  their  good  and  bad  qualities  pointed  out  and  criti- 
cised, and  an  accurate  drawing  of  the  example  be  put 
on  the  board  for  each  pupil  to  contrast  and  compare  with 
his  own  work.  He  should  then  be  allowed  to  correct 
and  revise  his  drawing  from  the  teacher’s  example  upon 
the  board.  For  this  purpose  charts  of  drawing  exam- 
ples are  valuable,  enabling  the  teacher  to  suspend  a 
good  illustration  of  a lesson  on  t he  board,  for  the  pupils 
to  correct  their  work  by.  Home  exercises  in  memory- 
drawing may  also  occasionally  be  required  of  the  pupils 
with  much  advantage. 


II.  — Grammar  Schools. 

The  group  of  subjects,  model,  memory,  and  geo- 
metrical drawing,  suitable  for  the  pupils  in  grammar 
schools,  introduces  one  new  subject  only,  — that  of  geo- 
metrical drawing,  which  takes  the  place  of  free-hand 
outline  from  the  blackboard,  practised  sufficiently  in 
drawing  from  objects  and  memory. 

MODEL-DRAWESG. 

The  model-drawing  may  now  be  made  to  include 
such  geometric  forms  as  can  be  used  to  convey  the  first. 


ART  TV  RUB LIC  SCHOOLS. 


55 


elementary  rules  of  perspective,  such  as  the  conver- 
gence of  parallel  lines  retreating  from  the  eye,  the  fore- 
shortening of  lines  ancl  planes  according  to  the  angle 
they  make  with  the  direction  in  which  the  student  is 
looking  at  the  object,  and  other  elementary  rules.  More 
difficult  models  being  used,  every  pupil  will  have  a dif- 
ferent view  of  the  same  object ; and  though  general 
principles  may  and  should  be  explained  by  diagrams  on 
the  blackboard,  the  teaching  will  be  more  individual 
than  before.  The  measuring  of  heights  and  widths 
proportionately,  and  of  vanishing  planes,  by  means  of 
the  pencil  held  in  the  hand  at  the  full  extent  of  the 
outstretched  arm,  must  be  explained  to  and  practised 
by  the  pupils  ; for  that  is  the  only  practical  and  accurate 
method  of  model-drawing.  This  way  of  measuring, 
which  every  draughtsman  and  artist  adopts,  does  not 
come  under  the  head  or  description  of  mechanical  meas- 
urement, being  only  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  pro- 
portion of  the  various  parts,  as  affected  by  the  laws  of 
perspective.  Instead  of  single  objects  being  given,  as 
in  the  primary  schools,  groups  of  objects  may  profitably 
be  placed  before  the  pupils,  some  of  which  they  will 
have  already  drawn,  and  others  which  will  be  fresh  to 
them.  Geometric  solids,  such  as  the  cube,  oblong 
block,  triangular,  square,  pentagonal,  and  hexagonal 
prisms  and  pyramids,  as  well  as  the  cylinder,  cone,  and 
sphere,  are  very  usefully  employed,  each  or  more  than 
one  at  a time  in  conjunction  with  some  familiar  object, 
together  composing  a group  of  forms.  The  great  diffi- 
culty at  present,  which  the  friends  of  art  education  in 
America  will  have  to  meet,  is  the  provision  of  suitable 
examples  for  study  ; so  that  I see  no  other  way  of  for- 
warding the  cause,  or  of  removing  the  difficulty,  than  by 
establishing  an  agency,  either  by  the  State  government 
of  each  Commonwealth,  or  through  private  enterprise 


5G 


ART  EDUCATION. 


where  all  the  most  approved  models  and  copies  may 
always  be  attainable  at  a moderate  cost.  At  present, 
models  which  a professionalty-educated  art  rqaster  could 
conscientiously  use  do  not  apparently  exist  on  sale  in 
the  United  States. 

In  England,  nearly  forty  years  ago,  when  the  nation 
was  awakened  to  the  necessity  of  at  once  giving  an  art 
education  to  its  people,  the  two  difficulties  were,  the 
want  of  teachers  and  of  copies.  That  will  be  our 
want ; but  it  will  exist  no  longer  than  people  feel  apa- 
thetic about  the  matter.  When  once  a real,  earnest 
demand  shall  exist,  the  want  can  be  supplied,  in  as 
many  months  as  it  lias  taken  years  to  produce  them  in 
the  old  country. 


M lCMORY-DRAWING. 

Just  as  the  groups  of  subjects  in  model-drawing  will 
be  more  difficult  than  those  used  in  primary  schools,  so, 
of  course,  the  memory  exercises  will  be  more  advanced 
also.  Sometimes  a whole  class  may  be  required  to 
draw  any  given  example  which  has  been  practised 
months  before,  or  perhaps  formed  part  of  a course  in 
the  primary  schools.  Every  pupil  should  have  one  les- 
son per  week  in  drawing  on  the  blackboard,  in  chalk, 
on  a large  scale.  It  would  be  well  to  let  a third  of  the 
class  draw  either  their  models  or  memory  exercises 
upon  the  board,  each  lesson ; so  that  during  the 
wreek,  if  three  lessons  be  given,  all  will  have  drawn 
upon  the  board,  which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
all  methods  of  teaching  drawing  by  the  free  hand. 

GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 

The  pupils,  having  been  previously  taught  the  defi- 
nitions of  terms  used  in  plane  geometry,  may  be  passed 
on  to  the  construction  of  figures.  Each  pupil  requires 


BURSLEM  SCHOOL  OF  ART. 

(WEDGWOOD  MEMORIAE.) 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


57 


a good  pair  of  pencil  compasses,  a ruler  with  inches 
marked  upon  it,  and  a ruled  book  of  smooth  paper  to 
work  his  problems  in.  The  teacher  enunciates  the 
problem  to  the  class,  who  writes  the  enunciation  from 
his  dictation.  He  then  works  out  the  problem  on  the 
hoard,  the  class  following,  step  by  step.  Six  elemen- 
tary problems  are  an  hour’s  work,  and  four  of  the  more 
intricate  problems  will  take  the  same  time.  Every  third 
or  fourth  lesson  in  geometrical  drawing  should  be  a 
resume  from  memory  of  previous  lessons.  There  is  one 
consideration,  with  reference  to  this  subject,  teachers 
should  strongly  impress  upon  the  minds  of  pupils  : as 
demonstrations  of  the  results  are  not  required,  their 
own  accuracy  must  be  the  demonstration.  If  a geo- 
metrical drawing  is  not  accurate,  it  is  nothing,  or  worse 
than  nothing.  It  does  not  pretend  to  be  beautiful,  and, 
unless  intensely  true  in  its  result,  is  not  useful,  but  a 
piece  of  delusive  and  worthless  ugliness.  I mention 
this  because  pupils  will  sometimes  apologize  for  inaccu- 
rate results,  by  stating  that  they  do  know  how  to  work 
the  problem,  which  always  seems  to  me  an  aggravation 
of  the  original  offence  rather  than  an  excuse  for  it.  It 
is  like  a man  caught  in  the  act  of  telling  a lie,  who  tries 
to  excuse  himself  on  the  grounds  that  he  knew  it  was 
a lie,  and  did  not  himself  believe  the  statement  he  was 
making.  Accuracy  and  inaccuracy  are  merely  habits 
which  are  formed  either  by  good  training  or  bad  and 
careless  instruction. 

III.  — High  and,  Normal  Schools . 

In  the  high  and  normal  schools,  a wider  range  of  study 
is  permissible,  because  the  capacities  of  the  students  are 
more  developed.  Still,  it  seems  to  me  that  there  is 
some  danger  in  attempting  too  much.  In  future  years 


53 


ART  EDUCATION. 


it  will  be  desirable  that  the  students  in  the  normal 
schools  should,  during  their  period  of  training,  complete 
an  advanced  course  of  lessons  in  the  five  subjects  of 
free-hand,  model,  memory,  geometrical,  and  perspective 
drawing,  and  by  passing  examinations  in  them  receive 
diplomas  or  certificates  of  competency  to  give  instruc- 
tion ; the  examinations  being  conducted  and  diplomas 
awarded  by  the  responsible  officers  of  the  State  govern- 
ments. This,  however,  must  be  a matter  of  growth. 

MODEL-DKAWIXG. 

The  model-drawing  of  the  high  and  normal  schools 
should  be  made  a most  instructive  course,  and,  besides 
illustrating  the  use  of  different  materials,  as  chalk,  mono- 
chrome, and  color,  be  very  comprehensive  in  subject* 
Drawing  from  plaster  casts  in  crayon  and  sepia ; from 
groups  of  natural  objects,  as  fruits  and  flowers  ; from 
still  life  and  objects  of  art  in  water-colors,  — will  give 
a wider  scope  and  a greater  interest  to  the  object  draw- 
ing than  was  possible  in  the  elementary  schools. 

Drawing  ought  to  be  so  familiar  to  the  pupils  who 
have  previously  passed  through  the  primary  and  grammar 
schools,  that  in  the  high  and  normal  schools  it  should 
be  used  generally  in  the  study  of  other  subjects,  and 
exercises  in  botany,  geology,  natural  history,  anatom}", 
or  mechanics  be  readily  illustrated  by  drawings  and 
sketches  in  the  preparation  of  which  instruction  should 
be  given  to  the  students  in  shading  and  coloring. 

In  these  exercises  high  finish  or  pretty  ornamental 
painting  are  not  to  be  sought  after,  — good  drawing, 
having  a round  effect,  and  fairly  tinted  like  nature, 
being  more  educational,  besides  being  more  economical 
of  time,  than  finished  painting. 

In  time  I hope  the  neglected  subject  of  art  education 
may  become  of  so  much  value  educationally,  that  we 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


59 


shall  use  it  freely  in  acquiring  knowledge  of  history, 
of  the  social  life  of  other  ages  and  peoples,  of  the  glori- 
ous art  epochs  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  still  glorious 
natural  phenomena  which  surround  us  every  day  in  the 
New  World.  A refined  perception  of  the  beautiful  in 
nature  and  art,  and  the  enjoyment  arising  therefrom, 
will  be  ample  compensation  for  time  spent  in  art  study 
by  those  who  derive  no  pecuniary  or  social  advantages 
from  it. 

PERSPECTIVE. 

The  additional  subject  of  Persjiective  is  put  down  for 
study  in  the  high  and  normal  schools.  It  is,  of  course, 
of  the  very  highest  importance  to  the  proper  understand- 
ing of  all  kinds  of  drawing,  and  has  the  same  relation- 
ship to  linear  representation  that  grammar  has  to 
language.  It  would  be  possible  to  speak  grammatically 
without  a knowledge  of  grammar,  and  to  draw  accu- 
rately, as  Turner  did,  without  a technical  knowledge 
of  perspective  ; but  these  things  are  possible  only  to  the 
few  whose  enormous  experience  compensates  for  their 
want  of  education.  Perspective  studied  systematically 
gives  the  teacher  of  drawing  such  a grasp  of  the  whole 
subject  of  linear  representation,  that,  combined  with 
model  and  memory  drawing,  he  need  never  be  at  a loss 
for  examples,  nor  fear  to  reproduce  them. 

In  this  subject,  which  is  taught  entirely  on  the  black- 
board, the  teacher  requires  much  power  of  illustration 
by  sketches,  and  great  clearness  of  verbal  explanation, 
to  make  the  problems  intelligible  to  the  student.  Great 
experience  in  teaching  the  subject  has  enabled  us  to 
reduce  its  main  principles  to  a plain  system  ; and,  when 
we  secure  the  assistance  of  a good  text-book,  it  will  be 
found  comparatively  easy  of  attainment.  Geometrical 
drawing  must  necessarily  precede  the  study  of  perspec- 
tive, which  is  dependent  on  it  for  the  construction  of 


60 


ART  EDUCATION. 


forms  used,  as  well  as  for  experience  in  handling  the 
instruments  by  which  it  is  worked  out. 

DRAWING  FROM  FLOWERS  AND  FOLIAGE,  AND  ELEMENTARY 

DESIGN. 

Drawing  from  natural  foliage  in  outline  is  both  in- 
structive as  an  exercise,  and  may  be  utilized  by  making 
it  a preliminary  study  to  original  design.  Thus  a class 
should  be  one  day  required  to  draw  a given  plant  (1) 
as  it  appears  naturally ; (2)  to  make  diagrams  on  the 
margin  of  the  paper  of  its  structure,  showing  front, 
back,  and  side  views  of  the  leaves,  and  buds  and  flow- 
ers, if  any,  geometric  plans  of  its  principle  of  growth,  and 
the  color  of  all  suggested  by  tints  washed  over  the  out- 
lines. The  following  lesson  might  then  be  an  exercise, 
and  had  better  be  a home  exercise  to  use  this  material 
in  the  design  for  a pattern  of  ornament,  to  till  a given 
space.  A geometrical  form  as  a square,  oblong,  triangle, 
hexagon,  pentagon,  or  circle  of  sufficient  size,  the 
teacher  being  careful  that  the  form  to  be  ornamented 
shall  be  such  as  the  subject  may  properly  be  applied 
to.  If  the  pupils  be  instructed  generally  how  to  use 
their  sketches,  they  will  find  the  designing  of  original 
ornament  from  them  a most  interesting  and  valuable 
study ; and  then,  at  a subsequent  lesson,  the  exerqises 
of  the  whole  class  should  be  brought  in  and  delivered 
up  to  the  teacher,  and  openly  criticised  before  all. 

Upon  a just  recognition  of  the  good  features  in  the 
systems  of  nations  Avhere  the  subject  is  not  a new  one, 
and  a deliberate  consideration  of  our  own  circumstances 
and  requirements,  let  us  hope  in  time  to  establish  a 
system  of  art  education  in  this  country.  It  is  not  a 
branch  of  education  capable  of  a very  rapid  growth ; 
for  we  know  that  “ art  is  lonq  : ” but  the  same  wisdom 
that  has  built  up  the  magnificent  educational  system  of 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


61 


America  will,  I feel  confident,  be  as  capable  of  perfect- 
ing and  completing  each  phase  and  feature  that  it  may 
be  considered  desirable  to  add  to  that  system ; and, 
having  begun  well,  will  be  in  no  disposition  to  look 
back,  or  be  impatient  and  lose  heart  if  the  highest 
results  do  not  immediately  manifest  themselves. 

We  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing,  that,  in  begin- 
ning with  the  public  schools,  we  are  beginning  at  the 
right  end ; and  we  have  the  prospect  of  possessing 
before  very  long  a central  institute  of  art  in  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Art,  which  will  be  like  the  head-quarters 
of  fine  art  for  the  State  of  Massachusetts : and  what  is 
done  in  the  modern  Athens  will  be  copied  elsewhere. 
The  education  of  teachers  will  be  provided  for  by  the 
normal  art  schools,  which  will  in  due  time  arise  in 
every  State  ; and  before  very  long  there  will  be  hardly 
a common  school  in  which  satisfactory  instruction  is 
not  given.  The  supply  of  examples  to  carry  on  an 
efficient  course  of  art  education  will  follow  upon  the 
demand  for  them,  without  unnecessary  delay ; and  thus 
I maintain  that  the  prospects  of  naturalizing  the  subject, 
and  providing  for  its  development,  are  of  the  most  en- 
couraging character. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER,  AND  USE  OF  BLACK- 
BOARD ILLUSTRATIONS. 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  drawing,  as  a 
subject  of  general  education  in  the  common  schools  of 
America,  appears  to  be  a want  of  confidence  on  the 
part  of  the  regular  school-teachers  in  their  own  ability 
to  learn  drawing  themselves  and  teach  it  to  their  pupils. 
So  much  of  the  wonderful  has  been  associated  with  the 
possession  of  great  art  powers,  with  which  simple  ability 
to  draw  has  been  confused,  that  perhaps  this  diffidence 

is  reasonable : it  becomes,  however,  unreasonable  when 
6 


62 


ART  EDUCATION. 


it  is  associated  with  disinclination  to  learn,  on  the  ground, 
that,  to  understand  and  succeed  in  mastering  the  ele- 
ments of  drawing,  special  gifts  are  required  in  art.  The 
prevalence  of  this  erroneous  opinion  is  due  mainly  io 
the  fact,  that,  until  recently,  onl)r  those  children  in 
schools  were  permitted  to  draw  who  had  the  inclina- 
tion and  showed  proficiency.  Had  the  same  test  been 
applied  to  other  subjects  of  instruction,  the  schools 
would  soon  have  been  emptied,  and  the  teachers’  occu- 
pations gone.  But  the  relationship  of  children  to  other 
subjects  of  instruction  was  understood,  because  the 
teachers  themselves  understood  those  subjects:  the 
relationship  of  drawing  to  the  education  of  children 
has  been  misunderstood,  from  the  accident  of  the 
teachers  being  generally  unacquainted  with  its  practice. 
They  are  not  responsible  for  this  lack  of  experience  in 
drawing:  the  misconception  of  its  uses,  and  the  delu- 
sive notion  of  its  difficulty,  have  been  much  owing  to 
want  of  proper  gradation  and  method  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  elementary  exercises,  and  because,  in  many 
courses  of  drawing,  the  understanding  has  been  too 
often  ignored  for  appeals  to  the  fancy  or  the  taste,  — 
very  unreliable  guides  at  first. 

A reasonable  and  trustworthy  power  of  drawing, 
which  will  enable  the  possessor  to  represent  form  with 
as  much  ease  and  certainty  as  to  speak  or  write, — which 
power  is  possible  of  attainment  to  every  human  being 
who  is  neither  mentally  nor  physically  incapable,  either 
by  lunacy,  idiotcy,  blindness,  or  paralysis,  — such  a power 
must  be  based  upon  a thorough  understanding  of  each 
step  in  and  element  of  drawing,  known  by  name  and 
sight,  from  the  dot  to  the  most  subtle  compound  curve, 
from  the  geometric-form  to  the  last  problem  in  perspec- 
tive ; and  if  from  the  first  the  hand  is  made  the  agent 
of  the  mind  in  acquiring  and  testing  and  displaying  its 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


63 


knowledge,  then  understanding  Avill  guide  execution, 
and  the  two  associated,  acting  and  re-acting  upon  each 
other,  will  develop  inevitable  ability  to  draw.  Methods 
and  systems  of  instruction  designed  to  suit  unusual  facul- 
ties, either  great  or  small,  are  not  practical  for  general 
use ; and  this  is  the  error  into  which  artists  have  fallen, 
who  without  long  and  extensive  experience  in  art  edu- 
cation, or  such  experience  only  as  is  limited  to  a few 
subjects,  have  designed  special  methods  of  instruction. 
It  is  the  gaps  between  one  step  and  another  which 
frighten  people  of  ordinary  capacity,  and  hinder  feeble 
footsteps.  There  should  be  no  one  point  in  a series 
of  consecutive  lessons  in  drawing  which  could  be 
described  as  the  place  where  the  subject  begins  to  be 
* difficult.  Instruction  should  proceed  as  though  it  were 
the  ascent  of  .an  inclined  plane,  possible  to  all ; not  the 
climbing-up  of  a mountain-side,  uneven  in  gradation, 
and  interrupted  by  crevasses  and  precipices,  requiring 
extraordinary  faculties  to  surmount ; and  System  should 
be  the  engineer,  who,  when  the  road  has  to  be  made  and 
travelled,  fixes  the  gradients,  lays  down  the  lines,  and 
reduces  or  fills  up  inequalities  to  make  the  gradients 
safe  and  economic  to  average  power. 

For  this  reason  it  would  appear  to  be  the  duty  of 
those  who  have,  by  much  experience,  become  acquainted 
with  the  best  methods  of  instruction,  to  endeavor  to 
make  them  the  common  property  of  educationists,  who 
know  by  their  own  experience,  that,  in  the  long  run,  the 
best  road  is  the  safest,  but  not  alwa}rs  the  shortest. 

Form  is  the  language  of  nature,  and  drawing  the 
speech  of  the  eye,  expressed  by  the  hand.  The  alpha- 
bet of  this  language  is  the  series  of  signs  by  which 
form  can  be  represented,  color  being  the  local,  inherent, 
or  transient  circumstance.  The  letters  in  this  alphabet 
are  straight  lines  and  curves,  equal,  proportionate,  or 


C4 


ART  EDUCATION. 


various,  in  the  ratio  of  their  simplicity  or  subtlety.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  that,  if  we  are  to  understand  this 
language,  we  must  first  learn  its  alphabet,  then  spell  its 
short  words,  and  afterwards  construct  the  sentences 
which  delineate  natural  phenomena,  or  record  our  own 
perceptions  of  them.  Lastly,  if  our  natural  qualities 
be  receptive,  — capable  of  taking  in  the  wealth  of  natural 
phenomena,  — and  our  tastes  be  cultivated  into  refine- 
ment, comes  the  faculty  of  originality  in  art,  which  is  the 
result  of  educating  all  our  faculties,  not  the  spontane- 
ous generation  of  passing  fancy  or  of  sudden  caprice. 

That  is  the  experience  of  education  generally,  and 
art  education  supplies  us  with  no  new  developments. 
The  greatest  men  in  all  vocations  are  neither  produced 
nor  hindered  by  a system  of  education:  they  will  come  x 
with  our  help  or  without  it ; but  the  average  men  can 
only  be  produced  by  systematic  training  and  education, 
and  those  beneath  the  average  require  both.  So  that  it 
comes  to  this : systematic  education  is  necessary  for 
many,  requisite  for  most  of  us,  and  not  without  value 
even  to  the  few  who  are  destined  to  stand  foremost  and 
highest. 

A sign  of  educational  experience  is  when  we  fairly 
divide  the  labor  of  acquiring  knowledge  into  proper 
stages,  — neither  requiring  the  work  of  developed  skill 
from  the  inexperienced,  nor  withholding  the  most  ad- 
vanced exercises  from  matured  practice.  It  is  not  a sign 
of  wisdom  in  the  teacher  when  intense  accuracy  is  ex- 
pected from  the  young  child,  who  knows  not  wherein 
it  consists ; nor  is  it  merciful  to  insist  on  the  manipula- 
tive craft,  which  comes  by  long  practice,  from  those  who 
are  taking  the  first  faltering  steps.  If  the  understand- 
ing is  displayed  and  proved,  manipulative  dexterity  will 
come,  as  surely  as  the  mind  is  master  of  the  body,  in 
due  time.  It  has  been  the  fashion  with  some  to  say, 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


65 


that  no  mechanical  means  of  assisting  the  young  be- 
ginners to  draw  should  be  allowed  for  an  instant,  for 
fear  of  crippling  the  young  faculties  ; and  that  the  draw- 
ing-book must  be  kept  in  one  position  always,  regardless 
of  the  line  to  be  drawn,  or  whether  the  anatomy  of  the 
human  body  was  capable  of  drawing  a certain  line  in 
a fixed  position  ; nor  must  mechanical  means  of  correc- 
tion be  allowed.  Yet,  if  we  observe  the  habits  of  ex- 
perienced artists  in  their  studios,  we  find  they  resort  to 
every  resource  of  mechanical  assistance,  reserving  their 
skill  and  power  for  the  parts  where  mechanical  means 
are  useless,  and  human  skill  is  absolutely  required.  So 
that,  to  judge  by  the  rules  laid  down  by  theorists,  the 
tests  of  geometric  accuracy  are  to  be  forbidden  to 
babes,  whilst  they  are  invariably  resorted  to  as  neces- 
sary and  economical  by  strong  men  in  their  ripest 
development ! That  is  a delusion  and  mere  pedagog- 
ism.  Drawing  is  easy  enough  to  be  capable  of  human 
attainment  generally ; but  it  is  difficult  enough  to 
enlist  all  our  powers,  whether  of  scientific  invention 
or  artistic  skill : and  the  time  when  mechanical  means 
of  correction  are  most  required  and  most  possible  of 
usefulness  is,  when  the  artistic  powers  are  the  least 
developed  in  beginners,  and  can  be  most  easily  corrected 
and  disciplined  by  scientific  tests  and  criticism.  The 
teacher  who  insists  on  the  exactness  of  90°  in  a right- 
angle  drawn  by  a child  of  tender  age,  or  who  gives,  as 
a preliminary  exercise,  the  circle  which  it  was  Giotto’s 
pride  in  his  maturity  to  have  drawn  with  a stroke,  is 
imposing  burdens  grievous  to  be  borne  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  weak  and  unprotected,  and  crushing  a faculty  he 
is  employed  to  cultivate.  That  is  holding  on  by  the 
horns  of  the  altar,  whilst  the  altar  itself  is  dishonored, 
and  desecrated  by  the  misinterpretation  of  its  precepts. 
Approximate  accurac}",  such  as  may  be  expected  of  the 


0* 


G6 


ART  EDUCATION. 


individual  in  his  particular  stage  of  practice  and  devel- 
opment, is  all  that  should  be  expected,  as  it  is  all  that 
can  be  gotten  from  him.  With  this  the  teacher  should 
be  content,  trusting  to  growth,  development,  and  indus- 
try to  do  the  rest.  Those  who  learn  with  the  most  diffi- 
culty, and  honestly  express  all  the  ignorance  that  is  in 
them,  sometimes  come  out  right  in  the  end,  and  know 
best  the  special  forms  of  ignorance  and  truth  by  their 
own  disciplined  experience.  But  it  is  killing  to  such 
to  apply  the  highest  standard  of  exactness  at  once:  it 
must  be  applied  by  degrees,  and  with  a kindly  manner 
which  recognizes  every  advancement,  while  it  impresses 
the  pupil  with  a feeling  that  something  else  is  }*et  to  be 
attained.  This  is  so  well  known,  and  so  very  generally 
practised  in  all  other  subjects,  that  I ought  to  apologize 
for  referring  to  it  as  equally  true  of  drawing  as  a sub- 
ject of  instruction ; and  I should  do  so,  were  it  not 
for  the  fact,  that  I am  conscious  of  tests  being  usually 
applied  to  first  efforts  in  drawing  by  inexperienced 
teachers,  which  are  unusual,  as  they  are  unnecessary,  in 
it  as  in  other  branches  of  education. 

Measuring  the  accuracy  of  length  in  straight  lines,  or 
the  altitude  of  curves,  should  be  resorted  to,  not  to 
save  the  exercise  of  the  judgment,  but  to  correct  the 
inaccuracy  of  the  eye.  Beginners  will  be  unable  to 
divide  lines  truly  ; and  therefore  every  drawing-lesson 
should  include  that  exercise  as  part  of  its  progress,  as 
in  the  division  of  the  central  line  in  symmetrical  figures  ; 
but,  before  proceeding  to  draw  the  more  important  parts 
of  an  exercise,  the  accuracy  of  the  proportions  should 
be  tested,  and  faults  corrected,  either  by  the  experi- 
enced hand  of  the  teacher,  or  by  mechanical  means,  it 
matters  little  which,  if  the  error  be  proved  and  put 
right.  But  to  allow  errors  in  the  first  steps  to  make 
all  subsequent  steps  equally  erroneous,  from  a senti- 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


67 


mental  objection  to  the  use  of  measuring  as  a corrective 
agent,  is  a mistake  which  perpetuates  what  it  professes 
to  remove.  The  eye  will  not  be  trained  into  truthful 
perception  by  letting  it  get  accustomed  to  its  own 
imperfection  ; but  it  will  be  educated  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  right  for  wrong,  every  time  the  wrong  is  com- 
mitted. Mechanical  means  alone  furnish  us  with 
absolute  accuracy  in  geometric  forms,  and  are  therefore 
the  only  tests  to  be  relied  on  ; and  in  proportion  as  they 
are  judiciously  resorted  to  at  first  will  the  need  for 
them  gradually  cease.  People  speak  of  this  as  the  use 
of  crutches,  which  hinder  the  power  of  walking  alone. 
If  we  look  at  the  simile  closely,  we  shall  see  that  a 
crutch  has  sometimes  protected  and  preserved  an  in- 
jured or  undeveloped  limb,  until  its  powers  have  been 
restored  or  developed,  and  the  crutch  thrown  away ; 
whilst  a sentimental  prejudice  against  its  use  might 
have  led  to  permanent  injury  of  the  weak  part,  that 
would  have  necessitated  the  use  of  the  crutch  for  all 
after  life.  We  need  not  fear  that  sound  people  will  use 
such  a support  after  the  necessity  has  passed  away  ; 
and  to  deny  it  to  them  when  they  want  it,  is  dangerous 
cruelty. 

A species  of  idolatry  exists  in  the  minds  of  some  con- 
cerning the  value  attached  to  the  drawing  of  straight  lines 
and  circles.  It  may  therefore  be  as  well  to  state,  that  to 
draw  either,  except  by  accident  or  mechanical  assistance, 
is  an  impossibility : though  to  draw  lines  approximately 
straight  and  circular  is  not  difficult  of  attainment,  nor 
of  extraordinary  value  when  acquired  ; the  result  being 
so  far  inferior  to  the  lines  of  the  ruler  or  the  compasses 
as  to  be  universally  discarded  for  the  mechanically- 
made  lines,  when  straightness  or  roundness  has  to  be 
relied  upon.  What  we  want  in  art  education  is  to 
develop  the  power  of  doing  that  which  to  mechanical 


68 


ART  EDUCATION. 


means  is  unattainable  ; viz.,  original  and  tasteful  and 
learned  work,  scholarlike  and  artistic  : and  the  steps 
towards  this  are  only  the  means,  not  the  end,  which 
end  may  be  hindered  by  exaltation  of  straight  lines  and 
circles,  as  subjects  of  adoration,  unto  a miserable  god. 

Drawing  is  also  made  needlessly  difficult  b}r  arbitrary 
regulations  in  its  practice,  such  as  insisting  that  the 
book  or  board  should  always  be  kept  in  one  position. 
It  would  be  as  well  to  recognize  that  our  hand  and  arm 
are  only  a complex  instrument,  like  a machine  or  com- 
pound pair  of  compasses,  and  that  the  movements  of 
which  they  are  capable  are  limited  by  the  construction 
of  the  skeleton  and  the  action  of  the  muscles.  Thus 
a curve  of  short  radius  may  be  struck  by  the  movement 
of  the  fingers  on  the  second  joint  from  their  ends,  a 
longer  curve  from  the  movement  of  the  hand  on  the 
wrist-joint,  longer  still  by  the  fore-arm  on  the  elbow- 
joint,  and  the  longest  and  most  perfect  of  all  by  the 
whole  arm  moving  from  the  ball-and-socket  joint  of  the 
shoulder ; the  head  of  the  humerus  working  in  the  con- 
cavity of  the  scapula.  But  from  neither  is  it  possible 
to  strike  a curve  inwards  towards  the  joint  which  is 
used  as  its  centre,  any  more  than  it  is  possible  to  strike 
a curve  with  a pair  of  compasses  which  shall  tend 
towards  the  centre  from  which  it  is  struck.  So  that,  in 
drawing  curves  which  tend  inwards  towards  the  hand  or 
the  body,  we  must  either  shift  our  hands,  arm,  or  body,  to 
get  at  the  centres  of  such  curves,  or  we  must  shift  the 
book  or  paper  upon  which  we  are  drawing,  to  bring  the 
centres  into  our  hand  or  arm.  Of  the  two,  it  will  be 
found  more  convenient  and  orderly  to  allow  pupils  to 
change  the  positions  of  their  books  than  to  change  the 
positions  of  their  bodies,  or  to  walk  round  the  tables 
they  are  drawing  upon  in  search  of  the  centres  of  each 
curve  they  have  to  draw. 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


69 


Methods  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  geometric  forms 
should  be  taught  to  pupils  from  the  earliest  lessons. 
When  the  definitions  of  plane  geometry  are  given  as 
exercises  in  drawing,  preceding  all  other  exercises, 
the  test  of  the  true  construction  of  each  shape  should 
be  shown  to  all  pupils,  and  its  application  to  the  work 
of  each  he  required.  Thus  in  drawing  a square,  not 
onty  the  length  of  each  side  must  be  the  same  as  in  a 
rhombus,  but  the  length  of  the  two  diagonals  be  identi- 
cal, or  its  form  will  be  rhomboidal.  Individual  analyses 
for  each  form  will  be  familiar  to  the  teacher,  and  must 
be  made  equally  familiar  to  the  pupil,  that  the  under- 
standing may  assist  and  support  the  hand  and  eye. 

Having  said  thus  much  upon  the  proper  value  of 
the  geometric  exercises  in  drawing,  and  deprecated  too 
stringent  and  arbitrary  regulations  concerning  its  prac- 
tice, perhaps  it  would  be  right  I should  say  that  the 
opposite  mistake  of  undue  laxity  is  as  much  to  be 
avoided.  In  many  points  the  teacher  cannot  be  too 
strict  in  details  which  have  an  important  share  in  suc- 
cessful work,  however  indirectly  they  seem  to  bear 
upon  it.  Thus  sharp  points  to  pencils,  and  clean  hands 
and  rubber,  and  a book  neither  dog’s-eared,  defiled,  nor 
crumpled,  should  be  absolutely  insisted  on ; and  incorri- 
gibles  should  be  made  to  draw  upon  slates  only  until  they 
can  be  trusted  in  contact  with  white  paper  without  defiling 
it.  It  requires  no  great  art  genius  in  a teacher  to  insure 
that ; yet  the  ability  to  command  it  is  half-way  towards 
getting  the  best  results  from  his  instruction.  The  ex- 
cellent order  and  method  common  in  American  schools 
make  this  an  easy  matter ; and  it  requires  only  that  the 
accomplished  teachers  in  the  schools  should  turn  their 
attention  seriously  to  the  subject  of  teaching  drawing, 
to  guarantee  as  good  results  in  this  as  in  any  other 
branch  of  a common-school  education  already  attained 
to  by  them. 


70 


ART  EDUCATION. 


There  is  a satisfaction  to  the  student  in  mastering  any 
subject,  whether  it  be  purely  intellectual  or  experi- 
mental ; but  there  is  a keen  delight,  a sensuous  enjoj'-- 
ment,  in  acquiring  skill- in  art.  The  first  time  a student 
succeeds  in  realizing  some  natural  effect,  or  expresses 
an  idea  of  the  mind  which  had  previously  existed  only 
in  thought,  is  a moment  of  inexpressible  joy : it  is 
beyond  explanation  to  those  who  have  not  felt  it,  and 
worth  all  the  pains  and  discipline  it  costs  to  obtain  the 
sensation. 

Happily,  this  enjoyment,  pure  in  its  character  and 
godlike  in  its  creativeness,  is  within  the  reach  and  appre- 
ciation of  all  who  care  to  possess  it ; but,  like  some  other 
excellent  inventions,  it  must  be  wooed,  and  will  “not 
unsought  be  won.”  It  does  not  drop  like  a ripe  apple 
from  the  tree  of  knowledge  into  the  mouth  of  a lazy 
Adam  below,  but  needs  well-directed  climbing  to  be 
secured. 


DRAWING  OX  THE  BLACKBOARD. 

The  use  of  the  blackboard  for  instruction  in  all  sub- 
jects of  elementary  drawing  is  highly  essential.  It  may 
be  well,  therefore,  to  suggest  its  capabilities  and  the 
best  means  of  acquiring  command  over  it. 

The  chalk  used  should  be  square  in  section  ; so  that, 
when  it  is  advisable,  a line  of  uniform  thickness  can  be 
obtained,  — which  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  with 
conical-shaped  pieces  of  chalk.  A short  stick  of  wood 
about  eight  inches  long,  having  a cone  of  four  inches 
altitude  and  two  inches  base,  its  apex  at  one  end  of 
the  stick,  and  its  axis  the  stick  itself,  — the  cone  to  be 
covered  with  wash-leather,  chamois-skin,  or  soft  cloth 
with  a good  staple,  — is  the  best  implement  with  which 
to  erase  lines  not  wanted ; the  pointed  end  of  the  cone 
enabling  the  draughtsman  to  take  out  constructional 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


71 


or  other  lines  without  destroying  the  curves  which  are 
near  them. 

Vertical  lines  are  drawn  from  above  downwards,  the 
weight  of  the  hand  and  arm,  allowed  to  fall  naturally, 
assisting  the  eye.  The  draughtsman  should  stand  with 
his  right  shoulder  opposite  the  vertical  line  to  be  drawn. 
Horizontal  lines  are  made  with  the  greatest  facility  when 
a fixed  and  firm  point  has  been  made  to  the  left,  and 
the  arm  and  body  moved  with  the  hand  firmly  pressed 
from  left  to  right,  thus  steadying  the  hand  and  keeping 
its  position  relative  to  the  body  the  same.  In  drawing 
curved  lines,  it  is  well,  unless  the  draughtsman  has ‘great 
experience,  to  make  a few  dots  in  the  path  the  curve 
has  to  traverse ; not  more  than  four  or  six  for  any 
curve,  but  enough  to  guide  the  eye  and  give  confidence 
to  the  hand.  Passing  the  chalk-point  over  the  place 
where  the  intended  curve  is  to  be,  without  marking, 
is  also  useful,  as  it  accustoms  the  hand  and  arm  to  the 
motion  and  change  of  joint  required  in  the  curve. 
Very  rapid  drawing  upon  the  board  is  not  recom- 
mended, because,  until  the  teacher  has  had  great  expe- 
rience, it  will  not  be  likely  to  be  accurate  enough : on 
the  other  hand,  the  whole  amount  of  time  spent  in 
drawing  an  hour's  lesson  for  pupils  ought  not  to  be 
more  than  five  minutes.  The  left  curves  should  be 
drawn  first ; and,  when  drawing  the  balancing  forms  on 
the  right  hand,  the  eye  should  take  in,  not  only  the 
curve  in  process  of  formation,  but  that  already  made,  to 
which  it  is  symmetrical.  That  suggests  standing  far 
enough  from  the  board,  and  the  teacher  will  find  it  is 
better  to  draw  with  the  whole  arm  from  the  shoulder- 
joint  than  from  the  elbow  or  wrist,  the  face  not  being 
nearer  the  board  than  a distance  of  two  feet  in  a per- 
pendicular line  to  its  surface. 

The  diagram  should  not  extend  much  above  the 


ART  EDUCATION. 


72 

draughtsman’s  head,  for  above  that  his  hand  will  lose 
power ; nor  below  his  elbow  when  the  arm  hangs  at 
the  side,  for  to  draw  then  brings  the  head  close  to  the 
board,  and  prevents  a clear  view.  If  it  be  necessary  that 
lines  be  made  both  above  and  below  these  points,  the 
position  of  the  body  and  head  must  be  raised  or  lowered, 
so  as  to  avoid  stooping  or  straining,  which  is  fatal  to 
good  work.  Drawing  on  the  board  is  the  most  perfect 
illustration  of  the  expression,  “free-hand  drawing;”  and 
unless  the  hand  be  quite  free  and  supple  in  its  motion, 
and  the  arm  as  well,  sweet  curves  or  refined  lines  are 
impossible. 

The  best  preparation  for  blackboard  work  is  to  draw 
the  diagrams  with  pen  and  ink  on  a small  scale,  which 
forms  the  habit  of  slow,  deliberate,  and  thoughtful  exe- 
cution, besides  familiarizing  the  eye  and  hand  with  the 
character  and  nature  of  thy  forms  to  be  reproduced. 
Very  good  drawing  on  the  board  is  easily  acquired ; but 
it  must  have  a basis  of  the  power  to  draw  pretty  well  to 
begin  with.  After  all,  valuable  as  the  ability  is  to  teach- 
ers, as  a means  of  instruction,  it  can  only  be  regarded 
as  a rough  process  to  illustrate  principles,  and  has  the 
same  sort  of  relation  to  actual  representation  as  the 
foundation  of  a building  has  to  the  whole  and  the  parts 
of  its  superstructure.  There  is  danger  in  thinking  too 
little  or  too  much  of  the  power  of  drawing  on  the  board : 
to  the  teacher  it  is,  perhaps,  above  all  other  agencies  in 
elementary  instruction,  and  of  less  value  than  other 
processes  in  advanced  instruction,  being  useless  in  con- 
veying information  concerning  light  and  shade  or  color. 
Skill  and  readiness  to  draw  forms  on  the  board  are 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  ability  to  explain  the 
nature  and  character  of  the  forms  which  are  illustrated: 
but,  of  the  two,  the  latter  is  the  more  valuable  ; for,  with 
intelligent  descriptions  and  critical  acumen,  even  rough 


ill pi ‘ P'i’i'jiis) 


ART  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


73 


diagrams  may  be  made  to  serve  all  practical  purposes 
of  instruction ; whilst  the  best  drawings  in  so  rude  a 
material  as  white  chalk  will  not  teach  of  themselves, 
unless  accompanied  by  clear  and  intelligent  explana- 
tion. It  is  only  the  most  simple  and  rudimentary  forms 
which  can  be  illustrated  on  the  board : a draughtsman 
who  wishes  to  illustrate  subtle  forms  or  refined  grada- 
tion in  curvature  would  not  think  of  employing  such  a 
rough  vehicle  as  white  chalk,  or  so  violently  contrasted 
degrees  of  line  and  background  as  black  and  white. 

The  power  to  draw  on  the  board  is  so  easily  acquired, 
that  it  is  somewhat  surprising  to  find  such  a degree 
of  importance  and  value  attached  to  its  possession.  It 
is  the  very  cheapest  way  of  securing  a reputation  for 
ability  to  draw,  usually  valued  more  than  it  deserves  to 
be,  and  not  valued  at  all,  except  as  a rough  expedient, 
by  those  who  have  a much  better  and  more  costly  arti- 
cle, which  includes  in  its  comprehensiveness  the  power 
of  using  all  mediums  upon  any  material,  applied  to  every 
subject  capable  of  representation.  So  that,  whilst  to  the 
teacher  it  is  of  the  highest  instructional  use,  as  the 
alphabet  is,  it  is  easy  of  attainment  to  all,  and  nothing 
to  be  very  proud  about  when  acquired. 

It  is  said  that  a drawing  will  convey  a truthful  idea 
when  words  fail.  To  do  this,  the  drawing  must  be  either 
very  good  and  the  words  very  feeble,  or  the  audience 
very  ignorant.  There  are  very  few  drawings  which 
convey  completely  any  idea  which  could  not  be  more 
fully  expressed  with  the  assistance  of  language  added 
to  visible  forms.  At  the  same  time,  the  understanding 
can  be  appealed  to  through  the  eye,  as  well  as  through 
the  ear ; and  it  is  either  bad  economy  which  prefers  one 
medium  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  or  inefficient  educa- 
tional powers  which  cannot  resort  to  all  or  any  one  as 
the  need  arises.  The  scale  in  music  is  perfectly  illus- 

i 


74 


ART  EDUCATION. 


tratecl  by  a ladder  with  half-steps  between  E and  F 
and  B and  C ; and  the  major  and  minor  keys  are  as  well 
demonstrated  by  the  circle  and  elliptic  curves.  There 
is  hardly  any  educational  process  which  may  not  draw 
its  similes  from  subjects  outside  of  its  own  resources,  for 
development  is  very  similar  in  all  things:  the  growth 
of  a plant,  the  progress  of  a day,  the  education  of  a 
child,  the  history  of  a nation,  the  comprehension  of 
a religious  or  political  principle,  — all  have  stages  almost 
precisely  alike,  which  can  be  explained  and  understood 
by  comparison.  It  is  the  mark  of  a teacher,  that  he 
detects  these  resemblances,  and  uses  them  to  illustrate 
principles,  just  as  it  is  a sign  of  his  power  to  grasp  all 
means  within  his  reach  to  make  his  explanations  plain. 
Amongst  these  means  is  drawing,  — of  no  more  impor- 
tance than  others,  and  of  no  less ; and  a teacher  who 
can  illustrate  a lesson  in  physical  geography  by  sketches 
of  the  natural  products  of  the  country,  and  character 
of  the  people  and  their  habits,  or  who  accompanies  his 
historical  exercises  by  drawings  of  the  costume,  archi- 
tecture, portraits  of  eminent  men,  weapons  and  imple- 
ments used  in  war  and  agriculture,  or  maps  of  contested 
ground,  or  charts  of  geographical  distinctions,  is  twice 
as  powerful  a teacher  as  he  who  appeals  only  through 
the  ears  to  the  understanding,  without  illustration  of 
forms  or  displa}r  of  visible  peculiarities. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SCHOOLS  OF  ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


f 1HE  very  general  desire  to  establish  agencies  by 


which  to  secure  a development  of  general  in  the 
form  of  secondary  or  technical  education,  as  well  as 
the  movement  in  favor  of  what  is  somewhat  vaguely 
termed  industrial  education,  suggests  that  information 
of  a practical  character  concerning  what  has  already 
been  done  in  the  same  direction  in  European  countries, 
may  be  of  value  in  America  just  now.  The  study  of 
art  in  its  elementary,  advanced,  or  technical  stages  re- 
quires accommodation  of  a special  kind,  — in  buildings, 
their  arrangement  as  to  lighting,  &c.,  and  the  apparatus 
and  examples  to  illustrate  varied  subjects  of  study.  To 
furnish  suggestions  concerning  these  requirements  is  my 
aim  in  this  chapter,  with  the  hope  that  those  who  have 
not  yet  had  opportunities  of  obtaining  such  information 
may  find  it  of  some  use  to  them  when  provision  for  art 
study  has  to  be  made. 

It  will  be  well  to  recognize  the  distinction  between 
elementary  instruction  in  drawing,  such  as  ought  to  be 
given  in  the  common  schools,  and  advanced  scientific 
or  technical  instruction,  which  more  properly  belongs  to 
the  special  schools,  called  schools  of  art.  There  is  no 
necessity  for  providing  in  a permanent  manner  the  means 
of  elementary  instruction  in  these  special  schools ; for 


75 


76 


ART  EDUCATION. 


eventually  it  will  be  furnished  as  a part  of  general  edu- 
cation : though,  until  that  becomes  an  accomplished 
fact,  temporary  provision  should  be  made  for  those  adults 
who  desire  such  instruction,  and  were  not  able  to  obtain 
it  during  their  school  terms. 

A school  of  art,  then,  should  be  designed  upon  the 
assumption  that  the  knowledge  of  elementary  drawing 
in  such  subjects  as  free-hand,  model,  geometric,  and  sim- 
ple linear  perspective  drawing  has  already  been  acquired  ; 
and  its  mission  is  to  take  up  the  student  upon  his  leav- 
ing the  day-school,  and  carry  on  his  general  art  education 
to  a higher  level  firstly,  and  guide  it  in  a special  direc- 
tion afterwards.  The  school  should  be  to  artisans  what 
the  university  is  to  the  professional  man  ; and  to  such 
professions  as  those  of  the  architect  and  engineer  it 
should  be  a professional  school  also.  The  best  arrange- 
ments for  study,  the  best  examples  to  study  from,  and 
the  best  instruction  which  can  be  obtained,  are  alone 
worth  the  outlay  of  providing  them : makeshifts  of 
badly-lighted  and  ill-adapted  rooms,  poor  or  bad  exam- 
ples, and  feeble  or  incompetent  instruction,  may  possibly 
be  better  than  nothing ; and,  if  that  be  allowed,  a gene- 
rous estimate  has  exhausted  the  whole  value  of  such 
provision.  It  is  useless  to  delude  ourselves  into  believ- 
ing that  we  are  practising  economy  by  establishing 
drawing-classes  in  rooms  used  for  other  purposes  than 
art  study,  and  furnished  with  desks  and  a blackboard 
only,  and  taught  bjr  a teacher  whose  sole  qualification 
is,  that  he  can  himself  draw : that  may  do  for  a single 
term,  until  elementary  principles  have  been  acquired ; 
but,  unless  it  be  followed  by  something  more  complete 
in  its  character  as  a provision  for  art  instruction,  we  are 
only  increasing  a demand  for  which  we  provide  no  sup- 
ply. The  most  economical  way  of  commencing  classes 
is  to  begin  upon  a plan  requiring  little  or  no  modifica- 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


77 


tion,  nor  to  be  without  any  means  for  instruction  suit- 
able to  the  end  sought,  which  are  procurable  by  a 
reasonable  outlay.  The  courses  of  study  should  he 
determined  upon  for  each  school  by  competent  persons 
deliberating  on  the  special  wants  of  a locality.  The 
premises  to  be  occupied  for  the  pursuit  of  these  studies 
should  be  designed  by  an  architect  who  understands  the 
requirements  of  art  education,  in  conference  with  the 
professional  art  master  who  is  to  be  intrusted  with 
the  task  of  carrying  on  the  school ; and  the  examples 
and  apparatus  for  instruction  should  be  obtained  at  first, 
so  that  there  may  be  no  difficulties  in  the  way  of  admin- 
istering the  system  adopted.  A great  waste  of  money 
usually  results  from  premises  being  adapted  for  drawing- 
classes  or  art  schools  by  persons  who  know  nothing  of 
the  special  requirements  of  study  in  each  of  the  rooms  ; 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  schools  and  classes  is  thus 
sacrificed  until  further  alterations  are  made,  adapting 
the  rooms  for  each  specialty,  upon  experienced  advice. 
I have  been  made  so  painfully  aware  in  many  instances 
of  the  wastefulness  of  such  proceedings,  and  the  disap- 
pointments and  discouragements  they  have  occasioned  on 
all  sides,  — to  students,  teachers,  school  committee,  and 
the  public,  — that  I would  seriously  warn  all  to  whom 
is  intrusted  the  provision  of  facilities  for  art  study  not 
to  be  misled  in  that  manner,  on  the  false  cry  of  economy, 
which  is  really  extravagance.  It  has  come  under  my  ob- 
servation, that  schools  miserably  prepared  and  equipped 
for  their  work  have  done  miserably  ; and  that  when 
the  same  schools  have  had  fair  play,  in  new  premises 
built  specially  for  them,  the  whole  character  of  the 
students’  work  has  been  improved,  its  quantity  increased, 
and  all  connected  with  the  new  administration  have  been 
gratified  with  the  changes  effected.  The  time  spent  in 
working  under  difficulties  and  drawbacks  which  were 
7* 


78 


ART  EDUCATION. 


accidental  or  removable  was  time  wasted,  in  so  far  as 
the  results  fell  short  of  what  they  might  have  been 
with  only  natural  difficulties  to  encounter.  For  these 
and  many  other  reasons  which  could  be  given,  it  is 
better  to  begin  right : the  result  will  justify  the  outlay 
incurred,  and  prove  it  to  be  the  most  economical  way  of 
expending  public  money. 


RANGE  OF  STUDY. 

In  order  to  consider  this  matter  methodically,  we 
should  first  see  what  is  proposed  to  be  done  in  schools 
of  art  and  industrial  drawing-classes.  This  may  be 
described  as  the  cultivation  of  the  understanding  and 
increase  of  knowledge  of  the  students  in  the  field  of 
art  generally,  supplemented  by  the  acquisition  of  manip- 
ulative and  technical  skill  in  some  branch  of  art  prac- 
tice. Thus  for  a time  all  the  students  will  study  a 
common  course,  intended  to  prepare  them  for  the  spe- 
cial courses  they  will  follow  afterwards.  Then  they 
branch  off  into  advanced  work,  either  (1)  scientific 
instrumental  drawing,  (2)  artistic  work  in  light  and 
shade,  color  and  design,  (3)  modelling. 

The  common  course  ought  to  include  drawing  in  pen- 
cil, crayon,  and  one  color,  from  ornamental  casts,  models 
and  objects  grouped,  natural  foliage,  flowers  and  objects 
of  natural  history,  details  of  the  human  and  animal 
figures,  in  outline  and  light  and  shade.  Where  it  has 
not  been  previously  studied,  the  course  should  include 
the  common-school  course  of  (a)  free-hand  drawing  from 
flat  examples  in  outline,  (5)  model  drawing  from  geo- 
metric solids,  (e)  geometric  drawing,  (&)  perspective 
projection,  ( e ) orthographic  projection.  When  this  has 
been  gone  through,  the  student  should  then  be  allowed 
to  commence  practice  in  the  special  subjects  : carpenters 
and  others  connected  with  the  building  trades,  in  build- 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


79 


ing,  construction  and  planning  of  houses,  drawing  and 
designing  of  architectural  details  ; machinists  and  engi- 
neers should  take  up  mechanical  drawing  of  details  of 
machinery  and  mechanical  motions,  drawing  from  meas- 
urement of  actual  machines  and  tools  in  use,  and  isome- 
tric and  parallel  projection  applied  to  machinery ; and 
both  carpenters  and  machinists  should  learn  the  art  of 
making  scale  drawings  to  work  from,  laying  out  work 
from  written  specifications,  and  making  the  specifications 
themselves  from  original  designs. 

The  draughtsman,  lithographer,  and  art  student  re- 
quire instruction  in  light  and  shade,  color  and  design, 
historical  study,  drawing  from  the  antique  and  the  liv- 
ing model,  from  natural  foliage  and  still  life.  The 
modeller  not  only  needs  the  same  instruction  in  drawing 
as  the  painter,  but  the  additional  practice  of  work  in 
the  round,  modelling  his  subjects  to  scale  from  the 
originals  ; and  should  know  how  to  reproduce  them  in  a 
hard  material,  as  plaster,  by  casting  his  own  productions. 

Thus,  though  the  basis  of  all  successful  art  is  good 
drawing,  which  should  be  never  lost  sight  of,  industrial 
art  education  must  be  discursive  enough  to  meet  the 
wants  of  all  industries,  and  in  those  particular  directions 
which  the  varied  occupations  of  the  students  suggest. 
The  method  of  study  adopted  will  necessarily  affect  the 
disposition  and  arrangement  of  the  rooms  to  be  used  ; 
hut  there  can  hardly  be  much  difference  in  the  way 
rooms  are  fitted  up  for  study  of  the  same  subject,  what- 
ever be  the  method  of  instruction  adopted.  The  most 
important  considerations  which  must  be  decided  before 
a school  of  art  be  carried  out  to  Completion  are,  ls£,  The 
building  and  its  accommodation ; 2d,  Fitting  and  light- 
ing; 3 d.  The  examples  for  study.  Taking  these  in  order, 
I propose  to  make  some  suggestions  concerning  each  of 
these  subjects. 


80 


ART  EDUCATION. 


THE  BUILDING  AND  ITS  ACCOMMODATION. 

The  size  of  the  building,  and  character  of  the  instruc- 
tion most  generally  required  in  any  locality,  will  deter- 
mine the  proportion  of  many  parts  of  the  building  to 
each  other.  Thus,  the  seat  of  a particular  manufacture 
may  wisely  require  that  special  and  considerable  accom- 
modation be  allotted  to  that  kind  of  industrial  drawing 
which  will  most  assist  the  trade  of  the  district.  When 
that  is  the  case,  an  addition  should  be  made  to  the 
average  proportions  of  the  school,  or  special  class-rooms 
be  built  for  the  technical  study  requiring  to  be  devel- 
oped. The  proportion  of  students  to  population,  which 
it  would  be  judicious  to  provide  room  for,  will  vary 
according  to  the  character  of  the  trade  carried  on  in  each 
locality,  whether  it  be  one  in  which  art  knowledge  is 
valuable,  or  the  reverse  ; and  though  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  discover  any  industrial  calling  in  which  art  skill 
would  be  of  no  value,  yet  its  pecuniary  and  marketable 
worth  is  greater  in  some  manufactures  than  in  others. 
But  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  usual  trades  carried 
on  in  every  city  or  town  ought  to  supply  a large  num- 
ber of  students,  irrespective  of  particular  manufactures, 
it  will  not  be  advisable  to  provide  for  less  than  five  per 
cent  of  the  population  as  students.  Taking  a city7-  of 
ten  thousand  inhabitants,  five  hundred,  at  least,  ought 
to  be  found  in  schools  of  art  or  branch  drawing-classes. 
If  one  school  only  be  built  in  a city,  it  should  provide 
for  that  number  of  students,  not  necessarily  at  one  time, 
but  at  twice  ; and  the  attendances  might  be  on  two 
evenings  per  week  for  each  class,  thus  allowing  a build- 
ing accommodating  five  hundred  to  provide  for  a thou- 
sand pupils,  or  one  to  hold  two  hundred  and  fifty  at  a 
time  to  provide  for  five  hundred. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  a school  for  five  hun- 

o 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


81 


dred  students  at  one  time.  The  class-rooms  are  divided 
into  two  groups ; viz.,  those  requiring  top-light,  and 
those  for  which  side-light  is  suitable,  — if  top-light  be 
not  available. 


TOP-LIGHT.  Feet. 

Exhibition  and  antique  rooms  . 60x30 

Painting-room 30x30 

Conservatory 10x30 

Ladies’  class-room  ......  30x30 

Plant  drawing-room  .....  20x30 


TOP  OR  SIDE  LIGHT.  Feet. 

Entrance-hall 20x20 

Lecture-theatre 00x10 

Mechanical  & architectural  room  60x30 

Elementary  and  cast  room  . . . 60x30 

Modelling-room 30x30 

Casting-room 20x30 

Designing-room 20x20 

Library  and  museum 20x30 

Master's  room  . • 20x20 

Janitor’s  offices  and  living-rooms 
Male  and  female  cloak-rooms 


Small  private  studios  for  advanced 
students,  — if  desirable. 


The  larger  rooms  should  not  be  less  than  sixteen  feet 
high,  and  the  smaller  not  less  than  twelve  feet.  The 
top-lighted  rooms,  with  the  exception  of  the  conserva- 
tory for  plants  and  flowers,  may  be  any  tiling  between 
twenty  and  thirty  feet  high,  but  not  less  than  twenty 
feet.  The  painting-room  should  have  windows  at  the 
side  joined  to  the  skylights,  provided  with  blinds,  capa- 
ble of  obtaining  either  a side  or  top  light,  as  desirable. 
The  entrance  hall  and  staircase  are  valuable  for  the  dis- 
play of  students’  works  from  selected  specimens  of  the 
school’s  production,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  excel- 
lently lighted.  The  best  place  for  the  dais  and  black-1 
board  of  the  lecture-theatre  is  the  centre  of  one  of  its  I 
long  sides,  the  seats  and  desks  for  students  being  ranged  i 

O'  o o 

elliptically  about  it.  The  modelling-room  and  casting-1 
room  to  communicate  with  each  other,  and  all  the  rooms 
to  be  accessible  from  a corridor  as  well  as  from  each 
other : the  exhibition,  painting,  and  ladies’  class  rooms 
should  be  connected  by  large  folding-doors,  so  as  to  be 
thrown  into  one  gallery  for  exhibitions.  As  a well-con- 


82 


ART  EDUCATION. 


sidered  scheme  of  arrangement  is  of  great  consequence 
to  the  satisfactory  working  of  a school  of  art,  I have 
given  illustrations  of  several  schools  in  England  whose 
plans  I am  familiar  with  ; each  of  them  having  some 
point  of  advantage,  and  being  of  very  different  dimen- 
sions, may  suggest  the  scale  upon  which  schools  for 
larger  or  smaller  towns  might  be  planned.  Perhaps  no 
one  plan  may  be  said  to  embrace  all  that  a school  of  art 
should  be,  nor  are  they  extensive  enough  to  meet  the 
wants  of  all  classes:  but  in  England  fees1  varying  from 
a small  to  a large  sum  per  month  nre  required  from  the 
pupils  ; and  that  limits  their  numbers  very  considerably. 
Education  is  belt  ter  understood  in  America  than  in  Eng- 
land; and  the  people  are  wise  enough  to  see  that  educa- 
tion, like  light  and  air,  should  be  enjoyed  by  every  one, 
and  be  free  to  all.  It  would  not  be  advisable,  therefore, 
to  copy  any  feature  of  the  planning  of  the  schools  illus- 
trated as  to  scale,  except  such  as  relate  to  provision  for 
particular  kinds  of  study,  the  lighting  of  galleries,  &c. : 
the  scale  of  a school  of  art  in  America  must  vary  from 
that  for  a school  in  any  European  country,  with  the 
exception  of  those  in  the  several  capital  cities. 

In  the  instructions  issued  to  committees  of  art  schools 
who  are  about  to  build,  the  English  department  of  Sci- 
ence and  Art  makes  the  following  suggestions  concern- 
ing the  building  of  an  art  school : — 

“The  Site.  — Tlu-  >ite  must  be  not  unhealthy  in  situation,  nor  in 
a noisy  locality.  It  must  be  within  convenient  distance  of  the  homes 
of  the  students.  In  tenure,  fee  simple,  without  encumbrance  of  rights 
reserved  over  the  surface,  or  reservation  of  minerals. 

“ Tiie  Plans.  — The  following  dimensions  are  suggested  as  afford- 
ing adequate  provision  for  accommodation  for  a hundred  students : 
Elementary-room,  40  feet  X 30  ; painting-room,  20  X 30  : modelling- 
room.  20  X 30;  master’s  room,  24  X 15;  cloak-room  for  females; 
closets,  laboratories,  and  anterooms,  and  kitchen  and  bedroom  for 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


88 


attendant.  The  elementary-room  should  be  east  and  west : it  should 
not  be  less  than  16  feet  high,  and  be  lighted  from  above.  The  paint- 
ing-room should  be  lighted  from  the  north  side,  and  should  have  a 
top-light  in  the  roof  over  and  in  continuation  of  the  side-light.  The 
master’s  room  should  be  lighted  by  a side-light  from  the  north  if  pos- 
sible. The  rooms  for  study  should  be  not  less  than  15  feet  high  to 
the  wall-plate,  if  ceiled  flat,  or  12  feet  high  to  the  wall-plate,  if  ceiled 
to  the  collar-beams  or  common  rafter.  The  rooms  should  be  well 
ventilated  by  the  admission  of  air  at  the  floor  level,  with  an  ample 
outlet  above.  The  external  walls  of  the  school,  if  of  brick,  should 
not  be  less  than  one  brick  and  a half  in  thickness,  and,  if  of  stone, 
not  less  than  20  inches  in  thickness.  All  the  roofs  must  be  either 
tiled  or  slated ; gutters  and  drains  to  carry  away  the  roof-water  being 
provided.  If  the  roof  be  unceiled  to  the  tie-beam  or  collar-beam, 
there  must  be  ceiling  to  the  rafters.  Rooms  which  are  top-lighted 
should,  in  all  cases,  be  ceiled  to  the  common  rafters,  in  order  to  give 
increased  height;  and  all  tie-beams,  or  other  heavy  roof-timbering, 
should  be  avoided,  and  iron  tie-rods  used  where  practicable.” 

The  most  valuable  light  for  art  study  is  that  direct 
from  the  north,  because  there  is  no  sunlight  in  it  of 
direct  rays : it  is  steady  and  continuous,  and  does  not 
alter  its  direction  during  the  course  of  the  day,  as  light 
from  the  south  and  west  does.  Next  to  the  north  light, 
east  light  is  best ; the  sun  being  soon  away  from  the 
east,  and  leaving,  after  it  has  gone,  a stead}r  light. 
The  exhibition-room  and  gallery  of  antique  statues 
should  he  lighted  from  above,  through  two  windows,  — ■ 
an  outside  and  a counter  light ; . the  second  being  of 
ground  glass  to  soften  the  light.  If  sufficient  lighting 
surface  can  be  got  from  the  north,  it  is  best  to  exclude 
southern  light,  altogether.  All  the  general  class-rooms 
should  be  lighted  with  gas,  methods  for  which  are 
suggested  in  the  section  on  Fittings,  with  the  exception 
of  the  conservatory  and  plant  drawing-room  ; the  latter, 
being  off  the  former,  ought  either  not  to  be  lighted  at 
all  at  night,  or,  if  the  plant  drawing-room  be  lighted,  it 
should  be  done  with  oil  lamps,  which  are  less  destructive 


84 


ART  EDUCATION. 


to  the  plants  than  gaslight.  The  amount  of  gas  con- 
sumed in  class-rooms  should  not  be  more  than  one 
medium-sized  burner  for  two  pupils,  when  the  rooms 
are  filled : if  more  is  required,  the  arrangement  is 
wasteful.  So  large  a quantity  of  gas  being  consumed, 
together  with  the  vitiation  of  the  air  caused  by  a large 
number  of  students,  there  should  in  all  rooms  be  the 
means  of  a constant  renewal  of  fresh,  pure  air,  by 
escapement  of  exhausted  and  introduction  of  fresh  air. 

The  school  should  not  be  designed  on  more  than 
three  floors  for  the  larger  l ooms ; though  small  rooms, 
such  as  those  suggested  for  private  studios,  may,  by 
needing  less  height,  occur  as  mezzanines.  The  best- 
managed  schools  I know  are  upon  one  floor  onl}r,  — the 
master  having  better  control  over  the  whole  school  in 
that  way  than  any  other ; and,  where  land  is  available, 
the  cheapest  and  best  class-rooms  can  be  obtained  by 
making  the  whole  of  them  on  one  story,  with  top-light  for 
all,  approached  by  a common  corridor.  Remembering, 
however,  that  one  necessary  condition  of  the  site  of  a 
school  of  art  is,  that  it  shall  be  within  reasonable  dis- 
tance of  the  homes  of  the  students ; which  means,  that 
it  be  within  the  city  limits,  neither  in  the  best  nor 
worst  quarters:  land  enough  to  put  either  all  or  the 
principal  rooms  on  one  floor  will  be  probably  beyond 
the  means  of  the  school  committees. 

The  style  most  adapted  for  a permanent  building 
of  several  stories  for  a school  of  art,  when  the  top  story 
is  used  for  a gallery,  and  therefore  there  will  be  a deep 
piece  of  wall  at  the  top  of  the  facade  unlighted  by  side 
windows,  will  be  that  in  which  are  the  greatest  resources 
for  breaking  up  in  a picturesque  manner  this  same  dead 
wall.  It  seems  to  me  most  possible  in  a fourteenth- 
century  Gothic,  with  a liberal  use  of  inlays  and  colored 
materials  of  all  kinds.  A building  for  a school  of  art 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


85 


should  not  itself  be  a libel  upon  the  public  taste,  nor  a 
satire  externally  upon  its  work  internally.  Those  who 
wish  to  elevate  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  community 
ought  to  teach  by  example  as  well  as  precept : whatever 
value  it  may  have  elsewhere,  faith  without  works  in 
this  subject  is  a very  blind  creed,  not  likely  to  make 
many  converts,  nor  to  regenerate  the  world  of  art. 

In  the  sketch  I have  given  of  dimensions  for  a school 
of  art  for  a city  having  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  a con- 
servatory is  mentioned.  This  provision  for  plants  and 
flowers  is  as  necessary  as  to  provide  casts  and  flat  exam- 
ples. It  is  found  to  be  both  economical  and  convenient 
to  have  a janitor  residing  upon  the  premises ; there 
being  ample  work  for  a man  and  his  wife  in  keeping 
the  plants  cared  for,  the  registers  of  attendance,  the 
rooms  in  order,  and  as  clean  as  they  should  be.  A male 
and  female  attendant  on  the  classes  are  constantly 
required ; and  their  time  should  be  wholly  given  up  to 
their  duties  under  the  direction  of  the  master.  A ladies’ 
class-room  is  also  mentioned.  The  object  of  that  is,  not 
to  provide  separate  accommodation  for  males  and  females 
in  the  ordinary  courses  of  instruction,  but  to  give 
advanced  pupils  who  are  commencing  professional  work, 
either  as  artists  or  teachers,  a special  room  for  practising 
undisturbed  their  several  exercises.  I would  in  all 
other  cases  let  no  separation  of  the  sexes  whilst  being- 
taught  be  made : the  course  of  instruction  ought  to  be 
precisely  the  same  for  both,  until  they  severally  branch 
off  into  technical  studies. 

It  may  be  sometimes  advisable  to  unite  the  various 
agencies  for  secondary  education  in  one  building ; and 
there  are  many  advantages  in  it.  Thus,  there  may  be 
added  to  the  school  of  art  a museum  of  industrial  art 
and  processes  of  manufacture,  a picture-gallery,  and  a 
reference  art  library,  open  to  the  public  as  well  as  the 


86 


ART  EDUCATION. 


students.  Such  an  association  would  necessitate  a larger 
and  more  important  building  ; but  it  would  very  much 
increase  the  efficiency  of  each  department.  In  case  of 
an  institution  having  much  and  valuable  property  in  it, 
as  would  be  contained  in  a library,  and  an  industrial  and 
line-art  museum,  it  should  be  entirely  detached  from  all 
other  buildings,  and  be  fire-proof  as  well.  Iron  stair- 
cases, concrete  floors  upon  brick  arches,  between  girders 
of  iron,  instead  of  wooden  joists,  would  practically  make 
the  building  fire-proof.  There  need  not  be  a foot  of  wood 
uspd  in  the  construction  of  an  art  museum  : though  its 
contents  and  the  furniture  of  the  class-rooms  in  con- 
nection with  it  would  necessarily  be  inflammable.  An 
institution  to  combine  these  objects,  for  a small  town 
or  citj',  it  has  long  been  my  .desire  to  see  built;  and  I 
designed  such  a building  before  I left  England,  and  now 
illustrate  it  (plate  2). 

It  is  supposed  to  be  on  a rectangular  plot,  entirely  de- 
tached, designed  so,  that,  if  necessary,  the  structure  may 
be  built  in  two  sections,  the  school  being  entirely  distinct 
from  the  block  which  forms  the  library,  museum,  and 
gallery,  but  so  arranged,  that,  should  the  school  be  built 
first,  when  the  other  is  added,  it  will  form  a complete 
plan.  If  it  be  advisable  to  secure  more  space  lor  the 
library  and  rooms  above,  the  vestibule  and  staircase  could 
be  brought  forward  and  built  outside,  so  as  to  leave  the 
fifty  feet  square  entirely  clear.  That  would  give  three 
rooms,  which  would  be  best  divided  into  two  upon  each 
floor,  making  six  rooms  of  about  fifty  feet  by  twenty-five 
feet  each ; and  when  furnished  in  each  department  by 
choice  books,  industrial  masterpieces,  and  pictures,  would 
form  a valuable  adjunct  to  any  school  of  art,  and  be  useful 
as  a public  institution,  irrespective  of  the  classes.  I sug- 
gest this  plan  to  the  consideration  of  those  about  to 
erect  a serviceable  institution,  combining  many  agencies 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


87 


for  good.  No  room  is  wasted  in  passages  or  corridors: 
all  the  large  rooms  may  be  made  into  one  grand  exhibi- 
tion-gallery by  the  opening  of  folding-doors  ; and  the 
administrative  part  of  the  school  can  be  kept  entirely 
free  during  such  an  exhibition  by  locking  the  class-room 
doors  opening  on  to  the  school  staircase.  The  exterior  is 
intended  to  be  of  plain  and  moulded  brick,  string-courses 
in  encaustic  tiles,  and  all  enrichments  in  terra-cotta ; so 
that  it  would  be  burnt  earth  entirely,  from  top  to  bottom. 

Plans  of  schools  of  art  are  not  very  familiar  to  the 
people  of  this  country  ; and  I therefore  give  illustrations 
of  some  that  have  been  built  in  England,  which  are 
found  to  be  well  arranged,  though  in  all  cases  having 
been  the  result  of  voluntary  subscriptions  by  private 
individuals,  they  are,  as  a rule,  contracted  in  accommo- 
dation. 

The  Nottingham  School  has  the  advantage  of  being 
on  one  floor,  with  the  exception  of  the  exhibition-gallery, 
and  is  a handsome  building  which  cost  very  little  money. 
Its  lighting  is  not  as  good  as  it  might  be  ; but  the  paint- 
ing-room has  the  right  kind  of  window,  half  in  the  roof 
and  half  in  the  wall,  and  is  to  the  north  or  north-east, 
which  is  nearly  as  good  a light  as  due  north.  The  gallery, 
or  exhibition-room,  is  right  in  section,  but  has  no  counter- 
light of  ground-glass  to  soften  and  diffuse  the  light,  as 
in  the  Sheepshanks  Gallery  (plate  14),  — a better  arrange- 
ment in  every  way. 

The  Birkenhead  School  has  the  disadvantage  of  being- 
on  three  floors  ; but  as  one  is  below,  on  the  basement, 
the  principal  floor  is  only  one  flight  of  stairs  above  the 
middle  floor,  approached  by  an  outer  flight  of  steps. 
It  is  commodious  and  very  well  lighted,  and  not  too 
large  to  be  managed  by  one  master  and  assistants.  The 
upper  floor  is  used  as  a general  class-room,  and  for  exhi- 
bitions when  necessary.  The  building  is  wholly  detached, 


88 


ART  EDUCATION. 


and  ample  space  is  left  in  the  rear  for  conservatory  and 
garden,  and  probably  a library  and  museum  at  some 
future  time.  The  school  is  only  recently  erected,  and  is 
a gift  from  a private  individual  to  the  town  of  Birken- 
head, and  will  be  an  instrument  of  great  benefit  to  com- 
ing generations  of  skilled  artisans  who  reside  in  the 
borough.  The  elevation  is  an  example  of  the  difficulty 
of  providing  height  enough  for  a gallery  to  be  top- 
lighted,  without  leaving  a heavy  mass  of  dead  wall  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  structure.  That  difficulty  is  better 
met  in  the  Nottingham  School,  the  more  plastic  style  of 
which  allows  the  wall  to  be  broken  up  in  a picturesque 
manner.  The  furniture,  fittings,  and  examples  of  this 
school  are  particularly  excellent;  and  I recommend  Amer- 
ican visitors  to  England,  who  are  interested  in  art  educa- 
tion, when  arriving  at  Liverpool,  to  pay  a visit  to  the 
school,  which  is  across  the  river  at  Birkenhead.  They 
will  find  in  Mr.  John  Bentle}',  the  present  head-master 
(1872),  a genial  gentleman,  who  has  spent  much  time  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  whose  practical  knowledge 
of  art  educational  matters  cannot  fail  to  be  instructive 
to  his  visitors. 

The  Coventry  School  is,  like  that  at  Nottingham, 'an 
example  of  building  a front  of  two  stories,  the  gallery 
occupying  the  upper  floor  of  the  front,  and  the  class- 
rooms being  on  one  floor  only  ; viz.,  the  ground  floor. 
It  is  an  arrangement  of  great  convenience,  which  may 
possibly  be  only  understood  by  those  who  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  the  conduct  of  a school  of  art.  The  build- 
ing was  the  work  of  a young  architect  (Mr.  Murray), 
who  unhappily  was  cut  off  before  he  had  reached  his 
prime  ; and  it  is  remarkable  for  having  cost  only  two 
thousand  pounds,  — say  ten  thousand  dollars.  The 
arrangement  of  having  several  classes  in  one  large  room 
(the  general  class-room)  may  have  some  advantages, 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


89 


but  it  has  many  disadvantages  ; and  I do  not  recommend 
its  adoption  here.  It  is  resorted  to  as  a means  of  decreas- 
ing the  cost  of  conducting  a school,  by  the  employment 
of  fewer  teachers  than  are  necessary ; but  in  this  coun- 
try, where  a proper  value,  social  and  economical,  is  at- 
tached to  education,  such  expedients  are  not  necessary ; 
and  as  each  class  in  the  common  schools  has  its  own 
room  and  teacher,  so  I hope  each  separate  branch  of 
art  study  will  have  its  distinct  room  and  instructor. 

The  Minton  memorial  building  at  Stoke  upon  Trent 
is  a good  suggestion  for  a village  school  of  art,  where 
only  a hundred  students  may  be  expected  to  be  in 
attendance  at  one  time.  It  has  the  demerit  of  being  on 
two  floors,  arising  probably  from  want  of  space  in  the 
site.  The  modelling-room,  of  great  importance  in  the 
potteries  (where  the  school  is  situated),  could  be  used 
both  for  that  purpose  and  drawing  from  the  antique  by 
night,  though  it  should  be  loftier  for  day  studies. 

The  Wedgewood  memorial  — the  Burslem  School  of 
Art  — is  another  example  of  a village  school,  having  a 
facade  whose  ornamentation  consists  of  very  excellent 
terra-cotta  work,  though  the  scale  of  the  engraving 
prevents  its  display.  This  design,  as  well  as  the  Minton 
memorial,  is  planned  to  meet  special  requirements,  — 
designing  and  modelling ; but  the  ordinary  classes  are 
not  neglected.  Some  rooms  are  adapted  for  work,  not 
strictly  speaking  of  an  art  character  ; yet  it  is  so  seldom 
that  schools  of  art  err  on  the  side  of  comprehensiveness, 
that  no  exception  ought  to  be  taken  to  it  on  that  ac- 
count. 

The  two  latter  schools  are  testimonials  to  the  valuable 
lives  of  two  princely  manufacturers,  who  strove  hard,  at 
much  pecuniary  sacrifice  to  themselves  at  first,  for  the 
elevation  of  industrial  art.  Their  success  and  its  appre- 
ciation have  led  to  the  founding  of  two  excellent  art 
8* 


90 


ART  EDUCATION. 


schools  ; and  I would  suggest  to  those  whom  it  may  con- 
cern, whether,  in  the  absence  of  any  better  opportunities, 
wealthy  Americans  might  not  erect  such  structures  in 
their  own  lifetimes,  and  present  them  to  the  towns  in 
which  their  wealth  has  been  secured,  or  those  to  which 
they  are  attached  by  birth  or  famil}7  connection.  It 
may  be  one  way  of  preventing  the  good  the}7  do  being 
interred  with  their  bones,  and  making  it  live  after  them 
in  future  epochs. 

As  schools  may  sometimes  be  built  which  have  to  be 
accommodated  to  contracted  sites,  and  may  have  to 
occupy  several  floors,  I have  engraved  a plan  by  Mr. 
W.  II.  Crossland  of  London  (who  is  rapidly  rising  into 
the  most  distinguished  position  as  a Gothic  architect), 
and  which  meets  the  difficulty  of  an  uncomfortable  site 
in  a very  able  manner.  Two  entrances  for  males  and 
females  are  obtained  on  each  side  of  a janitor’s  office,  — 
an  arrangement  which  facilitates  the  taking  of  students’ 
attendance  on  their  entrance  ; and  the  janitor’s  living 
rooms  are  near  the  doors,  — an  advantage  to  both  himself 
and  visitors.  The  staircase  for  the  public  and  for  male 
students  is  thrown  out  behind,  and  thus  secures  much 
saving  of  space,  and  protects  the  class-rooms  and  cor- 
ridors from  noise.  There  is  enough  room  in  this  build- 
ing for  two  hundred  students  at  once,  distributing  them 
fairly  over  the  several  classes  ; and  the  suite  of  rooms  at 
the  top  can  be  tin-own  into  a very  large  gallery  for  exhi- 
bitions. The  positions  of  the  classes  with  reference  to 
each  other  are  well  chosen  ; and  the  arrangements  gene- 
rally are  convenient,  considering  the  space  at  disposal. 

I owe  to  Messrs.  J.  H.  Sturgis  and  C.  Brigham,  archi- 
tects of  the  Boston  Fine  Arts  Museum,  the  opportunity 
of  illustrating  a school  of  art  designed  by  them  to  suit 
the  requirements  of  a city  of  from  twenty  to  forty 
thousand  inhabitants.  The  size  and  proportion  of  the 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


91 


rooms  have  been  arranged  so  as  to  comply  very  closely 
with  the  table  given  in  the  beginning  of  this  chapter ; 
and  1 do  not  think,  that,  for  the  size  of  the  building,  a 
better  school  could  be  planned.  The  building  is  sup- 
posed to  front  to  the  south ; and  thus  the  lighting  of 
the  suite  of  rooms  at  the  top,  requiring  top-light,  faces 
to  the  north.  In  the  basement  are  rooms  for  technical 
or  industrial  study,  anticipating  a development  in  that 
direction  which  is  very  likely  to  take  place.  The  lec- 
ture-room, in  which  so  much  of  the  real  work  of  the 
school  ought  to  he  done,  is  arranged  so  as  to  be  accessible 
from  the  corridor  of  the  first  story  ; and  the  rows  of  desks 
descend  from  the  level  of  the  corridor  to  the  black- 
board, which  is  nearly  on  the  level  of  the  basement. 
The  introduction  of  the  conservatory  into  the  front 
elevation  is  a feature  especially  pleasing  to  me,  suggest- 
ing as  it  does  the'  important  part  that  nature  plays  in 
the  study  of  art.  In  the  facade,  tiles,  terra-cotta,  and 
colored  brick  are  used  to  obtain  an  ornamental  effect ; 
and  the  building  altogether,  both  in  its  design  and 
arrangements,  will  commend  itself  to  the  favorable 
opinion  of  those  who  understand  what  is  wanted  in  an 
art  school,  as  well  as  to  the  lovers  of  architectural  art 
generally.  Such  a building  as  this  would  be  well 
adapted  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a fine-arts  institute  in 
any  metropolitan  city ; the  picture-gallery  and  indus- 
trial museum  to  be  afterwards  built  in  connection  with 
it,  in  its  rear.  That  some  community,  anxious  for  the 
distinction  of  establishing  the  first  industrial  art  school 
on  the  continent  of  America,  may  adopt  this  plan,  and 
carry  it  out  in  its  entirety,  is  my  fervent  hope  ; for, 
not  only  would  art  education  receive  a powerful  impulse 
thereby,  but  an  element  of  architectural  leaven  would 
be  introduced  by  its  erection,  that  would  probably  in- 
fluence in  the  right  direction  the  artistic  taste  of  any 
localit}r  which  adopted  it. 


92 


ART  EDUCATION. 


The  lighting  of  picture  galleries  and  exhibition  rooms 
is  a matter  of  such  consequence,  that  their  construction 
results  from  the  solution  of  this  problem ; and,  as  no 
school  of  art  may  be  said  to  be  complete  without  its 
gallery,  information  concerning  the  requirements  of  a 
satisfactory  exhibition  room  may  be  serviceable.  It  is 
a mistake  to  suppose  that  much  light  is  wanted  to  be 
able  to  see  pictures,  but  rather  the  right  sort  of  light, 
which  will  be  the  outer  daylight  toned  and  modified  from 
its  natural  glare.  On  a cool,  gray  day,  when  the  sun  is 
not  shining,  light  admitted  into  a room  through  clear 
glass  gives  the  perfection  of  a light  in  which  to  see  a pic- 
ture or  a drawing.  But  in  the  sunshine,  when  direct 
rays  of  sunlight  find  their  way  into  the  same  room,  the 
effect  is  not  to  illuminate,  but  to  obscure,  the  greater  part 
of  the  room,  by  the  violent  contrast  in  the  eye  between 
the  brightness  of  objects  the  sunlight  falls  upon  and  the 
shady  parts  it  does  not  reach.  The  problem,  then,  in 
lighting  a picture  gallery,  is  to  maintain  always  the 
character  of  the  light  which  we  have  through  clear 
glass  when  the  sun  does  not  shine,  — to  put,  in  fact, 
between  the  sun  and  the  pictures  what  a certain  condi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  puts  when  the  sun  is  invisible  but 
the  sky  clear.  This  can  only  be  effected  by  the  admis- 
sion of  sunlight  through  a semi-transparent  medium, 
which  diffuses  the  light  and  disperses  direct  rays  ; and, 
to  accomplish  this,  in  some  of  the  best  galleries  two 
windows  are  employed  in  the  skylight,  — the  outer  one 
of  clear  glass  or  slightly  obscured  plate  glass,  with 
northern  aspect,  and  the  inner  or  counter  light  of 
ground  glass.  The  Sheepshanks  Gallery  in  London, 
designed  by  Capt.  Fowke,  is  the  best  room  I know  for 
a clear,  steady  light,  neither  too  much  nor  too  little ; 
and  it  is  constructed  on  the  principle  described.  The 
engraving  opposite  will  explain  its  arrangement,  the 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


93 


two  lights  being  at  an  angle  with  each  other.  The 
vertical  distance  of  the  light  from  the  picture  is  also 
of  the  greatest  importance.  We  know  how  almost 
impossible  it  is  to  see  pictures  or  engravings  in  rooms 
lighted  from  the  side,  like  ordinary  dwelling-house 
apartments,  because  of  the  shining  and  reflection  upon 
their  surfaces.  The  cause  of  this  is  explained  by  the 
two  diagrams  below  the  plan  of  the  Sheepshanks  Gal- 
lery; and  Capt.  Fowke’s  own  words  referring  to  this 
part  of  the  subject  are  as  follows  : — 

“ Lighting  by  Day.  — • The  upper  rooms  of  the  building  (that  is, 
those  appropriated  to  the  exhibition  of  the  pictures  of  the  Sheepshanks 
collection)  are  lighted  frym  the  roof.  This  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  a skylight,  which  extends  along  the  entire  length  of  the  roof,  and 
measures  14  feet  in  width  ; that  is,  7 feet  from  the  ridge  on  either  side, 
the  entire  width  of  opening  being  12  feet  6 inches,  measured  on  a 
horizontal  plane.  As  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  section,  each 
room  is  20  feet  wide;  and  at  a height  of  14  feet  6 inches  from  the 
floor,  a cove,  springing  from  a cornice  on  each  side  wall,  reaches  the 
height  of  the  tie-heam  of  the  principals  (18  feet  8 inches  above 
the  floor),  at  a distance  of  4 feet  6 inches  from  the  wall,  thus  leav- 
ing a space  of  1 1 feet  between  the  coves : in  this  space  a ground- 
glass  internal  skylight  or  ceiling  is  introduced;  which,  however,  is 
raised  2 feet  above  the  highest  level  of  the  cove,  or  20  feet  8 inches 
from  the  floor,  the  ridge  of  this  skylight  being  pitched  1 foot  higher, 
thus  giving  a fall  of  2 in  1 1 to  each  side,  in  order  the  more  readily 
to  carry  off  any  moisture  that  may  occur  from  condensation.  The 
space  between  the  highest  point  of  the  cove  and  the  eave  of  the 
ground-glass  light  is  filled  in  with  perforated  panels,  for  purposes 
of  ventilation.  One  peculiarity  in  this  coving  requires  notice; 
namely,  that  it  is  not  returned  at  the  end  of  the  room,  but  cuts  out 
on  the  end  walls. 

“ By  this  arrangement,  which  militates  somewhat  with  strict  archi- 
tectural precedent,  the  skylight  is  preserved  in  its  integrity  through- 
out the  entire  length  of  the  room;  and  those  parts  of  the  side  walls 
nearest  to  the  ends  receive  an  equal  amount  of  light  with  that  under 
the  middle  of  the  skylight.  In  the  smaller  rooms  there  is,  by  this 
means,  a gain  in  amount  of  light  of  rather  more  than  one-third  over 
a similar  room  coved  all  round,  and  in  the  larger  ones  a little  more 
than  a fourth. 


94 


ART  EDUCATION. 


“ These  proportions  have  been  adopted  with  a view  of  affording  to 
the  gallery  as  much  light  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  of  avoid- 
ing any  reflection  of  light,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  ‘glitter,’  from 
the  surface  of  the  pictures ; and,  as  regards  the  quantity  of  light 
admitted,  it  may  be  stated  shortly,  that  the  opening  for  the  admission 
of  light  is  exactly  half  the  floor  area  of  the  gallery,  the  two  areas  being 
in  the  large  rooms  920  feet  and  4G0  feet  respectively;  thus,  floor 
4G  feet  X 20  feet  = 920  feet;  light  4G  X 10  = 4G0  feet;  and  it  is 
also  precisely  equal  to  the  entire  surface  of  either  wall,  which  might 
be  made  use  of  for  the  hanging  pictures.  In  dealing  with  the  quan- 
tity of  light,  another  important  point  must  not  be  lost  sight  of; 
namely,  the  height  of  the  opening  from  the  floor,  and  its  consequent 
distance  from  the  pictures;  and  this  will  be  found  to  be  in  this  gal- 
lery reduced  to  the  minimum,  consistently  with  the  avoidance  of  glit- 
ter, being  only  20  feet  inches  from  the  floor,  or  less  than  18  feet 
above  the  lowest  point  of  the  bottom  pictures.  The  possibility  of 
reflection  or  glitter  is  guarded  against  in  the  following  manner : 
Supposing  a mirror  to  be  hung  against  the  entire  surface  of  the  wall, 
it  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  diagram  that  a ray  of  light  from 
the  skylight,  at  its  extremity  (S)  farthest  from  either  wall,  striking 
that  wall  at  A,  at  a height  of  11  feet  6 inches  from  the  floor,  will  be 
reflected  (the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  being  equal)  so  as  to 
reach  the  eye  (E)  of  a beholder  (say  5 feet  above  the  floor),  standing 
midway  between  the  walls,  or  at  a distance  of  10  feet  from  the 
mirror  ; and  consequently  that  all  the  rays  striking  the  mirror  below 
that  point  will  fall  below  his  eye;  or,  in  other  words,  that  he  will  not 
be  able  to  see  the  image  of  the  skylight  at  any  point  in  the  mirror 
below  11  feet  G inches  from  the  floor;  and  that,  as  a matter  of 
course,  there  will  be  no  glitter  on  the  wall,  or  on  pictures  hung  on 
the  wall  below  that  point,  while  the  surface  of  the  wall  above  the 
11  feet  6-inch  point  will  reflect  the  image  of  the  skylight.* 


* This  principle  of  lighting  with  double  glazing  in  the  ceiling  was  successfully 
demonstrated  in  the  gallery  which  Mr.  Sheepshanks  erected  at  Kutland  Gate,  and 
from  which  he  helped  to  remove,  with  his  own  hands,  his  pictures  into  the  vans, 
to  bring  them  to  the  .South  Remington  Museum.  Mr.  Redgrave,  R.A.,  called 
Capt.  Fowke’s  attention  to  this  gallery,  and  to  the  principle  of  lighting  which  it 
demonstrated;  and.  in  all  subsequent  experiments,  Capt.  Fowke  derived  great 
benefit  from  his  great  practical  experience  on  the  subject.  A good  general  rule 
for  perfectly  lighting  a picture-gallery  may  thus  be  stated:  given  the  width  of  the 
gallery,  say  20  feet,  the  height  should  be  the  same  to  the  ceiling,  that  is.  20  feet; 
and  half  this,  that  is.  10  feet,  should  be  given  to  the  skylight.  Double  glazing  is 
indispensably  necessary.  This  rule  requires  modification  where  rooms  are  square, 
or  of  special  forms.  — H.  C. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


95 


•*  It  will  be  seen  from  tbe  diagram,  that  tbis  point,  which  we  may 
^all  the  glitter-point,  alters  according  to  the  position  of  the  beholder; 
for  instance,  at  E'3,  5 feet  from  the  wall,  the  glitter-point  is  at  B,  9 feet 
from  the  floor;  while,  on  coming  closer  (that  is,  to  F3,  or  within  2 feet 
of  the  wall),  it  will  be  lound  to  have  descended  to  C,  at  a height  of  7 
feet : on  the  other  hand,  by  receding  to  a distance  of  15  feet,  the 
wall  may  be  seen  without  glitter  to  a height  of  13  feet.  Looking 
again  to  the  same  diagram,  it  will  be  seen,  that,  apart  from  all  con- 
siderations of  reflection,  a person  desiring  to  see  a picture  at  a height 
of  11  feet  6 inches,  would  naturally  retire  to  a distance  of  at  least  10 
feet  from  it;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  other  heights  and  posi- 
tions shown  in  the  sectional  diagram : so  that,  in  any  position  in 
which  a person  can  conveniently  examine  a picture  in  this  gallery,  he 
may  be  sure  of  having  the  surface  of  the  picture  free  from  glitter. 

“ Care  has  been  taken,  in  fixing  on  these  proportions,  to  avoid  as 
much  as  possible  the  incidence  of  rays  on  the  surface  of  pictures  at 
very  acute  angles.  This,  which  would  not  be  of  any  consequence 
provided  the  pictures  were  smooth  or  plane  surfaces,  becomes  of  great 
importance  when  rough  or  thickly  painted  pictures  have  to  be  dealt 
with ; and,  as  few  pictures  are  perfectly  smooth  and  even,  it  is  a 
matter  of  some  moment  with  all,  as  it  produces  an  unpleasant,  spotty 
appearance,  by  lighting  up  strongly  one  side  of  all  inequalities,  and 
throwing  a corresponding  shade  on  the  opposite  side. 

“ The  lower  or  museum  rooms  are,  of  course,  side-lighted  ; but,  by 
keeping  the  centre  supporting  piers  as  thin  as  possible,  and  strength- 
ening them  by  counterposts,  the  daylight  is  admitted  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two-thirds  of  window  to  one-third  of  wall  measured  on  plan. 
The  large  rooms  have  16  windows  of  50  square  feet  each,  giving  a 
total  lighting  area  of  800  feet  to  the  large,  and  600  feet  to  the  small 
rooms,  or  nearly  as  much  as  in  the  picture-gallery  above  described. 

“ Lighting  by  Gas.  — It  has  been  thought  desirable  to  try  the 
experiment  of  lighting  up  the  gallery  with  gas  tor  evening  exhibi- 
tions ; and,  in  doing  so,  the  gas  is  introduced  so  as  to  light  the  pictures 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same  angle  as  the  daylight. 

“ For  this  purpose,  a horizontal  pipe  is  carried  the  entire  length  of 
the  gallery,  at  a height  of  18  feet  from  the  floor,  directly  under  the 
centre  of  the  skylight ; and  from  this  pipe  a number  of  fish-tail 
burners  are  projected  on  small  brass  elbows  at  each  side  of  the  pipe, 
and  distant  from  it  about  2 inches.  On  reference  to  the  diagram,  the 
rule  for  fixing  the  position  of  the  line  of  gas-burners  will  become 
apparent,  as  it  will  be  seen  that  its  position  at  G exactly  coincides 
with  the  intersection  of  the  two  rays  from  the  extremities  of  the  sky- 


96 


ART  EDUCATION. 


light,  which  strike  the  opposite  walls  respectively  at  the  highest 
glitter-points  above  alluded  to ; and  it  is  evident,  that,  by  such  an 
arrangement,  all  danger  of  glitter  from  the  gaslight  is  avoided. 

“ The  gas-burners  are  placed  in  such  a position  with  regard  to  the 
horizontal  pipe,  that  its  shadow  from  each  line  of  lights  is  projected 
into  the  cove  on  the  opposite  side.  By  placing  the  burners  in  this 
position,  not  only  is  the  part  of  the  wall  devoted  to  the  pictures  kept 
in  the  brightest  light  and  free  from  shadow,  but  the  coved  part  is 
kept  in  shade,  and  is  thus  prevented  from  reflecting  the  light  of  the 
gas  on  the  pictures,  and  thereby  in  another  way  causing  the  objec- 
tionable glitter.” 

Fittings  and  Lighting.  — The  fittings,  furniture, 
and  lighting  by  night  and  day,  of  an  art  school,  have 
hardly  less  part  in  its  successful  conduct  than  the  plan 
of  the  building;  for  they  affect,  not  only  the  comfort, 
but  the  possibility  of  study  in  numerous  cases.  With 
the  exception  of  the  most  elementary  class-rooms,  the' 
lighting  of  every  room  in  a school  will  require  a differ- 
ent treatment ; from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  some 
experience  is  necessary  before  buildingand  fitting  prem- 
ises for  art  study.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  fit- 
tings. Desks  and  apparatus  admirably  fitted  for  one 
branch  of  study  will  lie  inconvenient  and  a hinderance 
to  success  in  another ; and  this  arises  from  difference 
of  processes  in  the  pursuit  of  art  study.  Thus,  an 
easel  for  the  painter,  a flat  table  for  the  mechanical 
draughtsman,  and  a modelling-stool  for  the  modeller, 
are  all  as  different  from  each  other  as  the  works  pro- 
duced upon  them,  and  are  as  necessary  to  the  student 
as  tools  are  to  any  other  workman.  With  a desire  to 
make  this  book  as  practically  useful  as  I can  to  all 
engaged  in  providing  for  and  administering  art  educa- 
tion, and  hoping  to  answer  numerous  and  lengthy  appli- 
cations for  advice  and  information  which  are  addressed 
to  me  from  all  parts  of  America,  I propose  to  enter  into 
the  question  of  fittings  rather  fully  ; so  that  a considera- 


IT. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


97 


tion  of  what  is  said  here  may  assist  committees  and 
teachers  who  have  not  yet  had  opportunities  of  observ- 
ing what  is  done  in  European  countries,  or  experience 
in  testing  the  arrangements  they  propose  to  adopt. 
Taking  each  room  separately,  its  use  will  be  first 
described,  and  then  the  fitting  and  lighting  suitable  to  it. 
The  order  in  which  the  rooms  are  placed  on  the  list  of 
accommodation  given  on  page  81,  will  be  observed  ; so 
that  reference  may  be  made  from  that  list  to  any  one 
room  it  is  necessary  to  consider. 

The  Lecture-Theatre. — In  this  room,  the  sub- 
jects which  are  taught  in  class  will  be  carried  on.  They 
are  the  general  lectures  on  art,  and  the  special  lectures 
on  geometrical,  perspective,  and  mechanical  or  ortho- 
graphic projection,  building  construction,  and  model 
drawing  from  geometric  solids,  vases,  &c.  The  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  the  form  of  practical  lectures  by  the 
teacher,  illustrated  by  diagrams,  drawn  in  the  presence 
of  the  pupils,  on  the  blackboard,  and  copied  by  them. 
The  first  necessity,  then,  is,  that  the  room  be  so  arranged, 
that  every  pupil  has  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  black- 
board, and  of  the  stand  upon  which  models  or  objects  are 
placed  ; the  second,  that  the  teacher  should  have  a large 
blackboard  sliding  up  and  down,  so  that  he  can  make  his 
diagrams  large  enough  for  all  the  students  to  see  clearly, 
and  get  something  like  a similar  view  of  objects  to 
be  drawn,  with  ample  wall-space  near  the  blackboard 
for  the  suspension  of  charts  and  diagrams.  The  best 
shape  of  room  is  a rectangular  space  of  about  60  X 40, 
with  the  blackboard  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  long 
sides  ; the  platform  in  front  projecting  about  eight  feet 
into  the  room.  The  desks  for  pupils  to  be  arranged  in 
concentric  semi-ellipses,  the  axis  of  the  semi-ellipse  to 
be  coincident  with  the  front  line  of  the  platform,  as 
shown  in  the  sketch,  and  placed  upon  a gallery  rising 


98 


ART  EDUCATION. 


from  tlie  platform,  so  that  each  row  receding  from  the 
platform  will  be  higher  than  that  in  front  of  it.  The 
desks  and  benches  to  be  continuous ; the  former  large 
enough  to  allow  of  an  imperial  board  30  in.  X 22  in. 
being  used,  with  T square  and  instruments,  by  the 
student  following  the  lecturer.  If  top-light  be  possible 
by  day,  it  should  come  from  as  much  as  possible  over 
the  blackboard  and  in  front  of  the  students;  if  side- 
light, from  the  left  and  right  of  the  students,  never  from 
behind  them.  The  lighting  at  night  should  be  from  two 
or  three  sunlights  in  front  of,  and  a sufficient  distance 
above,  the  students,  — say  fifteen  feet,  — and  the  black- 
board be  illuminated  by  a row  of  jets  in  a straight  line 
coincident  with  its  length,  above  its  highest  point,  or 
where  it  can  be  placed  by  sliding  upwards,  the  lights  to 
be  concealed  from  the  e}’es  of  the  students  by  an  ample 
reflector,  throwing  all  the  light  out  to  the  board.  This 
room  would  give  accommodation  to  a hundred  students, 
allowing  to  each  desk-room  a yard  wide,  and  leaving  five 
feet  from  front  to  front  of  each  desk,  — two  feet  for  desk- 
top, and  three  feet  for  seat  and  gangway.  That  will 
enable  the  lecturer  or  an  assistant  to  examine  the  worl^ 
of  the  students  whilst  the  lecture  is  going  on,  if  their 
inexperience  should  make  it  desirable. 

In  a school  of  art  the  lecture-room  may  be  made  the 
place  of  all  others  where  the  most  work  is  done,  or  the 
least,  according  to  the  regulations  adopted.  If  students 
merely  sit  as  listeners,  without  being  required  to  make 
notes  and  sketches,  it  will  be  accidental  if  good  result 
to  them  from  the  lectures.  If  they  be  required  to  re- 
produce the  main  features  of  ever}!-  lecture,  in  prepared 
sketch-books,  both  text  and  illustrations ; to  submit 
these  regularly  to  the  lecturer  for  examination,  and  be 
inevitably  examined  upon  each  course  at  its  end,  — then 
the  lecture-room  becomes  the  most  important  class-room 
in  the  art  school. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


99 


Mechanical  and  Architectural  Drawing-Room. 
— This  room  should  be  used  for  drawing  from  copies, 
and  from  models  of  machinery,  details  of  drawing,  of 
architectural  specimens,  flat  and  round,  building  construc- 
tion, &c.  It  will  be  principally  occupied  at  night  by 
artisans  and  others.  The  teaching  here  is  individual  ; so 
that  every  student  will  be  engaged  upon  his  own  work, 
irrespective  of  others.  The  principal  requirements  will 
be,  that  the  drawings  in  progress  be  well  lighted,  and 
the  light  kept  out  of  the  eyes  of  the  pupils.  It  should 
never  be  forgotten,  that,  in  drawing  from  flat  copies  or 
models,  the  light  should  be  strong  upon  them  and  the 
drawing ; but  the  eyes  should  not  see  the  blaze  of  the 
light  itself : so  that  sunlights,  or  any  lights  a long  way 
from  the  pupils,  are  not  suitable,  giving  only  a poor  light, 
and  casting  shadows  where  light  is  wanted. 

A room  GO  X 30  feet,  arranged  as  in  plan  and  section, 
would  give  two  hundred  feet  of  table,  and,  calculating 
three  feet  for  each  pupil,  would  accommodate  sixty-six 
persons.  The  thirty  feet  divided  by  five  will  give  two 
tabled,  each  six  feet  wide,  and  three  gangways  of  the 
same  width.  The  walls  on  each  side  should  be  fitted 
wi‘h  bracketed  shelves  to  receive  models.  The  lights 
down  the  centres  of  the  tables  will  light  both  rows  of 
students  sitting  face  to  face,  — reflectors  being  employed 
to  cast  the  light  on  the  drawings.  In  working  at 
mechanical  and  architectural  drawing,  many  students 
prefer  standing  to  their  work  rather  than  sitting  to  it, 
though  the  latter  is,  in  my  opinion,  less  fatiguing  and 
injurious  than  the  former.  Half  of  the  tables  might  be 
arranged  for  work  whilst  sitting,  and  half  for  standing, 
as  the  sketch  shows,  — the  lights  being  higher  over  the 
standing  table.  Stools,  fixed  to  the  ground,  are  better 
than  forms  for  this  class ; so  that  when  drawing  from 
models,  which  will  be  kept  on  the  shelves  at  the  side, 


100 


An  7 r DUCA  TION. 


the  students  can  move  easily  to  and  from  both  drawing 
and  model,  without  shaking  the  form  or  disturbing  theii 
fellow-students. 

In  the  section  of  the  table,  there  is  shown  a manner 
of  preserving  and  storing  the  drawing-boards  of  the 
class,  which  is  convenient  and  handy.  In  the  centre  of 
the  six-feet  table,  there  is  a box  covered  b}T  a hinged 
lid,  G inches  broad,  4 feet  long,  and  2 feet  2 inches 
deep  ; i.e.,  the  depth  of  the  table.  When  the  student 
has  finished  his  work,  he  puts  his  board  and  squares  in 
this  place  ; and  they  are  preserved  from  dust  and  injury 
until  he  wants  them  again.  Each  groove  will  hold  eight 
imperial  boards  (22  by  20  inches). 

The  Elementary  and  Cast  Drawing-Room.  — The 
precise  nature  of  studies  carried  on  in  the  elemental- 
room  will  depend  upon  the  previous  preparation  of  the 
students  ; but,  speaking  generally,  drawing  from  copies 
will  be  practised  here  as  well  as  shading  from  the  solid 
model  of  geometric  forms,  casts  of  ornament,  and  details 
of  the  human  and  animal  figures. 

The  arrangements  and  lighting  of  this  room  must  be 
on  two  principles ; drawing  from  copies  and  from  the 
cast  being  subjects  requiring  very  different  modes  of 
light.  Taking  a room  60  x 30,  the  two  largest  Avails 
should  be  devoted  to  drawing  from  the  cast  and  model, 
and  the  middle  part  of  the  room  to  drawing  from  copies. 
Tables  2 feet  wide  and  2 feet  4 inches  high,  placed  so 
that  the  edge  nearest  the  wall  is  3 feet  from  it,  run  the 
AA'hole  length  of  the  room  on  both  sides,  will  give  2 feet  6 
inches  of  table  for  each  pupil ; and  thus  48  students  will  be 
accommodated,  there  being  120  feet  of  table.  At  inter- 
Arals  of  5 feet  on  the  side  walls,  there  should  be  a projec- 
tion, or  Avooden  partition,  of  2 feet  6 inches  deep,  to  con- 
centrate the  light,  and  shield  other  casts  from  it ; and  in 
the  centre  of  each  compartment  of  five  feet  a gas-jet 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


101 


with  reflector  above  it.  The  jet  should  be  horizontal, 
and  the  bracket  movable,  so  that  it  can  be  turned  nearer 
or  farther  from  the  wall  as  required  ; the  length  from  the 
wall  being  1 foot  6 inches,  the  height  of  the  light  from 
the  floor  about  6 feet.  The  wall  should  be  boarded  to  a 
height  of  10  feet  from  the  ground,  to  allow  of  casts 
being  hung  at  any  point  upon  it ; and,  at  a distance  of  2 
feet  from  the  floor,  there  should  be  a shelf  projecting  1 
foot  from  the  wall,  to  display  vases  and  such  subjects 
as  busts,  feet,  or  flowers,  which  rest  on  a base,  and  can- 
not, therefore,  be  hung  on  a wall. 

The  tables  for  the  centre  of  the  room  should  be  2 
feet  6 inches  broad,  standing  together,  making  a table 
of  5 feet,  or  one  table  of  5 feet  divided  in  the  centre  ; 
the  students  sitting  face  to  face,  but  not  seeing  each 
other.  Suggestions  for  these  tables  are  given  in  the 
diagrams.  These  would  give  2 feet  6 inches  of  table 
for  each  pupil ; and  the  tables,  being  together  100  feet 
long,  would  thus  accommodate  40  students.  Thus  88 
students  would  be  comfortably  provided  for  in  the  ele- 
mentary-room, leaving  6 feet  6 inches  for  gangway  and 
seats  on  either  side  of  the  desks.  The  lighting  of  the 
central  tables  should  be  by  20  double  horizontal  jets 
over  the  centre  of  the  tables,  each  jet  projecting  6 inches 
from  the  centre,  so  that  the  light  falls  on  the  copy  as 
well  as  the  drawing  on  each  side  ; and  these  lights  must 
be  so  covered  by  reflectors  that  no  direct  rays  can  reach 
the  side  walls  : for,  if  that  occurs,  the  light  and  shade  on 
the  casts  will  be  destroyed. 

This  method  of  lighting  has  one  great  advantage : it 
is  both  thoroughly  efficient  and  very  economical.  Only 
as  many  jets  are  lighted  as  there  are  students  in  attend- 
ance to  want  them,  so  that  there  is  no  waste ; yet  every 
student  who  is  at  work  will  always  get  as  much  light 
as  he  requires.  Forty-four  jets  to  light  eighty-eight 


102 


ART  EDUCATION. 


students  myst  be  considered  an  economical  arrangement ; 
and  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  will  always  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  students  in  attendance. 

The  Modelling-Room.  — No  special  arrangements 
are  required  for  this  room,  except  in  the  form  of  model- 
ling-stools, two  specimens  of  which  are  sketched.  The 
square  stool  is  used  for  modelling  relievos  upon,  subjects 
which  require  a background  of  clay,  and  are  usually 
modelled  upon  a board  or  slate.  The  forms  of  these 
may  be  varied  to  suit  different-sized  works  ; but  the  pro- 
portions suggested  will  be  found  convenient.  The  top 
of  the  square  stool  is  hinged  on  to  the  framework,  and 
can  be  placed,  therefore,  at  any  angle  with  the  ground. 
The  frame  is  2 feet  square,  and  its  height  is  3 feet  6 
inches.  The  support  to  the  top  should  be  in  the  form  of 
a wrought-iron  or  brass  arc  perforated  with  holes,  hinged 
on  to  the  top  of  the  stool,  and  working  into  a sheath  on 
the  framework  at  the  back ; a thumbscrew,  fixing  it  by 
screwing  through  sheath  and  arc  at  the  angle  required 
for  the  model,  securing  it  firmly.  The  circular  stool  is 
a tripod,  the  top  being  fixed'  to  a screw,  which  should 
be  brass,  and  capable  both  of  being  turned  round  to  get 
different  views  of  the  work  whilst  in  progress,  and  also 
of  being  elevated  or  lowered  according  to  the  subject  to 
be  modelled.  This  stool  is  the  most  suitable  for  busts, 
statuettes,  and  other  objects  in  the  round.  The  shelves 
shown  are  for  modelling-tools,  both  in  the  square  and 
round  stool. 

The  lighting  of  the  modelling-room  should  be  by  a 
powerful  sunlight  at  a moderate  distance  from  the  floor,  — 
about  14  or  15  feet,  — a reflector  of  about  5 or  6 feet 
diameter  diffusing  the  light  throughout  the  room.  A 
clay-bin,  in  size  about  3 feet  by  5 feet,  made  of  wood  and 
lined  with  lead,  and  covered  by  a hinged  top,  is  required, 
in  which  to  keep  the  modelling-clay  damp  and  clean. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DR  A I TING. 


103 


It  should  be  in  the  coolest  and  darkest  corner  of  the 
room.  A sink  with  water  laid  on  will  also  be  necessary. 

The  Casting-Room.  — An  adjunct  to  the  modelling- 
room,  fitted  with  tables  in  height  2 feet  4 inches  ; a sink 
and  water-tray,  2 feet  deep  and  4 feet  long,  to  clean  and 
soak  moulds  in.  There  should  be  a fireplace  in  the 
casting-room  for  wax  and  gelatine  moulding,  and  to 
dry  moulds  when  required.  A stove,  flat  at  the  top,  is 
the  best  form  of  fireplace,  something  like  a small  cook- 
ing-range ; the  wax  or  gelatine  or  sulphur,  as  the  case 
may  be,  being  heated  in  iron  or  tin  vessels  upon  the  top 
of  it,  or  in  the  baking  apparatus.  No  special  kind  of 
lighting  is  necessary  in  the  casting-room : brackets  or 
pendants  without  reflectors  are  sufficient,  at  convenient 
heights  and  places  above  the  heads  of  the  students,  six 
or  seven  feet  from  the  ground.  The  casting-room  should 
be  placed  in  such  a part  of  the  building  as  to  be  near  a 
receptacle  for  dust  and  ashes,  so  that  the  waste  moulds 
and  other  refuse  can  be  frequently  removed.  With  care 
and  convenient  arrangements,  the  modelling  and  casting 
- rooms  may  be  kept  as  orderly  as  other  rooms  ; but  if  oth- 
erwise placed,  and  not  kept  scrupulously  clean,  they  will 
be  a nuisance  to  the  whole  building : the  clay  and  waste 
plaster  will  be  trodden  about,  and  defile  every  passage 
and  staircase  near  the  two  rooms. 

The  best  way  to  secure  cleanliness  in  the  casting-room 
is  to  have  a covered  shoot,  or  wooden  tube,  running 
obliquely  through  the  wall  from  the  casting-room  to  a 
receptacle  for  studio  refuse  outside  ; and  a rule  of  the 
school  to  be,  that  all  students  engaged  in  casting  should 
remove  the  waste  and  plaster,  when  they  have  completed 
their  casts,  by  throwing  it  down  this  shoot.  Details  of 
this  sort  may  seem  trivial ; but  they  have  considerable 
influence  on  the  pleasant  working  of  a school. 

Cupboards  and  receptacles  for  stocks  of  plaster,  wax, 


104 


ART  EDUCATION. 


and  gelatine,  basins,  casting  apparatus,  &c.,  should  be 
placed  round  the  walls  of  the  casting-room ; and  strong 
shelves  also  for  moulds  and  casts  in  process  of  comple- 
tion, at  distances  of  three  and  five  feet  from  the  floor, 
projecting  two  feet,  and  supported  by  iron  brackets : 
every  thing  connected  with  fittings  in  this  room  should 
be  painted,  or  the  damp  and  water  used  in  casting  will 
soon  destroy  them. 

The  Designing-Room  requires  no  special  fittings, 
unless  it  be  considered  advisable  to  make  provision  for 
growing  plants,  which  may  be  used  during  the  process 
of  designing.  That  may  be  done  by  letting  the  lower 
part  of  the  windows  be  converted  into  a miniature  gar- 
den, protected  from  the  gas  by  glass.  Ordinary  tables, 
such  as  are  used  for  the  mechanical  room,  are  suitable 
for  this  room  also,  — about  10  feet  long,  2 feet  6 inches 
high,  and  the  same  breadth  at  top.  Cupboards  and 
presses,  in  which  to  keep  specimens  of  designs  for  the 
several  subjects  which  are  studied,  should  form  a part 
of  the  furniture  of  the  designing-room. 

Tiie  Library  and  Museum.  — A small  room,  in' 
which  students  may  consult  books  of  reference,  make 
tracings  or  sketches  of  fiat  examples  of  industrial  mas- 
ter-pieces, or  study  subjects  connected  with  their  own 
branch  of  workmanship,  is  a valuable  adjunct  to  a 
school  of  art.  Some  tables  should  be  arranged  to  hold 
large  books  in  an  upright  position  before  the  student, 
whilst  he  sketches  the  illustration,  and  others  sloped  at 
a convenient  angle  for  tracing.  A portion  of  the  books 
may  be  usefully  employed  b}’  being  lent  to  advanced 
students  ; though  indiscriminate  lending  to  the  younger 
pupils  is  neither  advantageous  to  them  nor  the  library. 
The  museum  portion  of  the  school’s  outfit  ma}r  also  be 
conveniently  kept  in  this  room,  in  glass  cases  ; for,  other- 
wise. time  and  use  will  soon  destroy  delicate  objects  of 
art,  especially  if  exposed  to  dust  and  rough  handling. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING.  105 


The  Exhibition  and  Antique  Room.  — It  is  in 
this  room  that  the  antique  statues  are  usually  displayed, 
on  suitable  pedestals  round  the  walls,  and  about  four 
feet  from  them.  The  students  sit  at  easels  or  easel- 
stools,  as  shown  in  plate  19  ; so  that  no  tables  nor  par- 
ticular form  of  seats  are  required.  The  walls,  colored 
a neutral  sage  green  or  warm  gray,  should  be  covered 
up  to  a height  of  ten  feet  with  boarding,  so  as  to  allow 
the  works  of  the  student  to  be  annually  exhibited  here. 
In  some  schools  a convenient  groove  is  formed  by  pro- 
jecting ledges,  into  which  the  frames  containing  the 
drawings  may  be  slipped  without  difficulty,  and  retain 
them  safely.  No  drawings  ought  to  be  displayed  in  an 
exhibition  without  being  mounted  to  a uniform  size,  and 
put  in  glazed  frames.  The  top  lighting  of  the  antique- 
room  should  be  so  managed,  that,  instead  of  being  in  one 
continuous  line  of  window,  it  can  be  broken  up  into 
two  or  more  lights,  at  a distance  apart  which  will 
localize  the  light.  A counter  light  of  ground  glass 
should  be  provided,  to  protect  the  statues  from  direct 
sunlight,  as  in  the  Sheepshanks  Gallery, (plate  14).  A 
lofty  room,  with  space  enough  for  the  students  to  get 
far  enough  away  from  the  figures,  is  an  essential  for  good 
figure-drawing ; and  it  would  be  well  to  remember  that 
no  subject  can  be  well  seen,  without  distortion  of  effect, 
unless  the  spectator  be  at  least  three  times  the  great- 
est length,  width,  or  height  of  the  object  from  it. 
That  the  eye  may  comprehend  a statue  of  six  feet  in 
height,  the  student  must  be  eighteen  feet  from  it. 
Twelve  feet  of  distance  is  sufficient  to  take  in  a view 
of  the  figure  ; but  so  near  the  perspective  is  violent,  and 
the  effect  unpleasant.  The  lighting  at  night  of  the 
antique-room  is  successfully  carried  out  by  sunlights, 
assisted  by  large  reflectors,  the  jets  of  gas  being  arranged 
in  a circular  ring,  close  together,  so  as  to  give  as  nearly 


lot) 


ART  EDUCATION. 


as  possible  the  effect  of  one  light.  Where  two  or  more 
sunlights  are  necessary,  there  should  be  a division  made 
between  them  by  a curtain,  which  will  isolate  each  light, 
and  can  be  conveniently  drawn  by  day,  or  when  it  is 
necessary  to  throw  the  divided  parts  into  one  room. 
Two  sunlights  should  be  sufficient  to  light  a room  sixty 
feet  b}r  thirty  feet,  placed  fifteen  feet  from  the  floor. 
The  pedestals  upon  which  the  figures  are  placed,  colored 
a neutral  tint,  or  covered  with  red  cloth,  should  be  made 
to  run  on  strong,  large  casters,  so  that  the  statues  may 
be  altered  in  position  or  shifted  from  one  part  of  the 
room  to  another,  without  danger  or  injury.  This  move- 
ment of  figures  is  continually  being  required  ; and  if 
the  pedestals  be  merely  stationary  boxes,  or  placed  on 
very  small  casters,  every  time  the  figure  is  moved,  it  is 
in  imminent  danger  of  being  destroyed,  and  of  killing  the 
students  who  are  shifting  it.  The  best  height  for  the 
pedestals  is  that  which  will  bring  the  knees  of  a stand- 
ing figure  on  the  level  of  the  eye. 

The  Painting-Room.  — The  light  required  for  this 
room  is  somewhat  peculiar ; being  considered  best 
when  of  two  kinds  in  one  window,  side  and  top  joined 
together,  an  example  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  plan 
of  the  Nottingham  School.  This  is  obtained  by  letting 
the  side  window,  which  should  always  be  to  the  north, 
continue  into  the  roof  as  a skylight,  no  cornice  or  wall- 
plate  intervening  to  break  up  the  light.  A blind  which 
draws  up  from  below  will  enable  the  side-light  to  be 
withheld  when  desirable  ; and  another  blind,  drawn  on 
cords  and  rollers  from  above,  will  control  the  top-light, 
if  the  side-light  alone  be  required.  The  studies  carried 
on  in  this  room  will  be  painting  from  copies  and  nature, 
groups  of  still-life,  foliage,  flowers,  fruit,  and  the  living 
model.  Painting  from  flat  copies  of  small  subjects  will 
require  a desk  similar  to  that  in  use  in  the  centre  of 


4. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


i 


t 


107 


the  elementary  and  cast-room  ; hut  other  stages  of  study, 
such  as  painting  from  nature,  are  usually  pursued  by 
placing  the  canvas  or  drawing-board  on  an  easel,  near 
to  the  subject. 

A peculiar  shaped  box,  called  in  London  an  angle- 
box,  is  useful  to  contain  small  groups  of  fruit  and  still- 
life.  It  is  sketched  in  plate  19,  to  show  the  shape 
and  character,  and  is  usually  painted  of  any  neutral 
color,  or  may  be  left  rough,  made  with  unplaned  boards. 
The  advantage  of  it  is,  that  the  light  is  shielded  from 
all  sides  but  the  one  required ; and  the  group  may  be 
moved  from  place  to  place  without  disarrangement,  and 
protected  from  dust  when  not  in  use  by  being  covered. 

The  Conservatory  should  be  fitted  in  the  ordinary 
way ; plants  being  kept  in  it  for  the  use  of  students  who 
are  drawing  from  nature,  and  therefore  grown  in  small 
pots,  to  be  easily  removable.  Trays  of  the  smaller 
flowers  are  useful  also  ; so  that  groups  may  be  made  from 
them,  in  compositions,  which  are  the  first  efforts  of  the 
students  pictorially.  Shrubs  and  plants  which  have 
bold  foliage,  together  with  ferns,  creeping  and  parasiti- 
cal plants,  form  excellent  subjects  for  outline  drawing 
and  design  ; vegetable  leaves,  such  as  the  potato  and 
cabbage,  are  good  forms  also  ; and  casts  made  from  such 
leaves  are  the  best  to  use  for  chalk-drawing  from  the 
solid  model,  in  the  early  stages  of  the  study.  Fruits 
which  can  be  grown  in  the  conservatory,  and  placed 
with  the  bloom  still  fresh  upon  them  before  the  students, 
are  among  the  best  materials  for  painting ; and  a garden 
attached  to  a school  of  art  would  be  of  great  value  to 
supply  subjects  of  study. 

The  Plant  Drawing-Room,  attached  to  the  conser- 
vatory for  convenience,  is  also  of  use  in  a school ; and  the 
two  rooms  may  be  made  from  one  apartment,  divided 
from  each  other  by  a glass  screen.  If  used  at  night,  the 


108 


ART  EDUCATION. 


plant  drawing-room  should  not  be  lighted  with  gas,  but 
with  oil-lamps,  so  that  the  vitiated  air  may  not  destroy 
the  plants ; and  special  provision  should  be  made  to 
carry  off  the  fumes  of  the  oil-lamps. 

Ordinary  tables  and  chairs  comprise  the  furniture  of 
this  room,  supplemented  by  a press,  in  which  leaves  and 
flowers  may  be  pressed,  and  preserved  for  future  use, 
arranged  in  large  books,  and  catalogued  for  the  use  of 
the  students.  Fine  specimens,  either  in  form  or  color, 
should  be  annually  secured,  so  that  the  winter  studies 
may  not  be  interrupted  for  want  of  examples.  It  requires 
some  skill  so  to  press  leaves  and  flowei*  that  their  pecu- 
liarities may  be  retained ; yet  if  a branch  which  displays 
the  chief  features  of  a plant  be  selected,  and  the  flow- 
ers so  arranged  that  the  front  and  side  views  of  leaves 
and  flowers  and  buds  will  be  retained,  it  will  be  found 
possible  to  press  them  successfully,  with  practice  ; and 
if  pencil  and  colored  notes  be  made  of  the  flower  color, 
whilst  still  fresh,  valuable  information  will  be  preserved 
for  the  designer.  One  of  the  teachers  in  every  school 
of  art  should  be  a practical  botanist,  who  is  able  to  give 
courses  of  lectures  upon  artistic  botany,  illustrated  by 
specimens  from  the  conservatory  and  collection  of  pressed 
plants ; the  students  writing  out  such  lectures  from  notes 
taken  at  the  time,  and  illustrating  them  by  actual  speci- 
mens of  leaves  and  sketches  of  the  flowers,  diagrams  be- 
ing made  to  show  principles  of  growth  and  arrangement. 

The  Ladies’  Class-Room.  — Intended  for  the  more 
advanced  and  technical  work  of  the  female  students, 
this  room  should  be  fitted  up  like  the  painting-room, 
provision  being  also  made,  by  means  of  a platform,  for 
study  from  the  living  model.  It  should  be  a private  stu- 
dio for  the  students  who  have  passed  through  the  gen- 
eral elementary  stages,  and  are  entering  upon  profes- 
sional work.  The  best  class  of  pupils  thus  studying 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


109 


together  will  be  found  to  assist  each  other  very  much. 
It  is  commonly  said,  in  the  great  European  schools,  that 
students  learn  more  from  each  other  than  from  their 
teachers  ; and  that  is  frequently  true : for  fellow-students 
are  merciless  critics  of  each  other’s  productions,  good- 
humoredly  so  ; and  a few  skilful  workers,  by  friendly 
criticism  and  a good  style,  will  raise  the  standard  of  all 
the  rest  of  the  work.  Angle-boxes,  as  used  in  the  paint- 
ing-room, and  easels  and  easel-stools  for  the  students  to 
work  upon,  are  convenient  in  this  room  also.  The  light- 
ing at  night  should  be  by  one  large  sunlight  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  room,  and  by  day  ought  to  be  the  same  as 
that  of  the  painting-room,  with  a window  in  the  wall  to 
the  north,  running  up  into  the  skylight  in  one  aperture. 
Above  all  sunlights,  there  should  be  a chimney  to  carry 
off  the  foul  air  and  heat  generated  by  the  consumption 
of  so  much  coal-gas.  These  chimneys  materially  assist 
ventilation,  if  ingress  be  allowed  for  pure  air  at  the 
floor-level. 

It  ma}r  be  quite  possible,  that,  in  the  progress  of 
art  education  in  America,  special  wants  will  arise,  and 
particular  branches  of  study  be  required,  of  which  we 
have  no  practical  experience  now.  The  application  of 
art  knowledge  in  every  occupation  will  in  the  end  be 
found  valuable,  and  may  result  in  a much  more  general 
demand  for  it  than  exists  at  present.  Such  a change 
may  modify,  or  even  entirely  change,  the  character  of 
buildings  required  for  schools  of  art.  The  general  study 
of  drawing  in  the  public  schools  will  undoubtedly  create 
a vast  constituency  of  students  for  art  schools ; and  more 
extensive  buildings  will  be  required  for  their  accommo- 
dation than  are  suggested  in  this  chapter.  Meanwhile, 
for  the  next  twenty  years,  many  art  schools  and  galleries 
will  be  built  in  America  ; and  the  hints  and  plans  given 
may  be  of  some  use  in  their  design. 


110 


ART  EDUCATION. 


American  Schools. 

A method  of  arrangement  for  drawing  from  objects 
adopted  in  the  Cooper  Institute  School  of  Design  for 
W omen,  New  York,  is  shown  in  plate  20,  which  is  dif- 
ferent to  that  I have  recommended,  hut  may  be  made 
very  efficient  when  a narrow  room  is  to  be  adapted.  A 
very  similar  method  is  in  use  in  some  French  schools. 
In  the  New- York  illustration,  the  figure  of  the  student 
sketched  is  rather  larger  than  it  would  be  in  proportion 
to  the  room  ; which  looks  as  if  only  capable  of  holding 
two  students,  though  four  may  be  accommodated  in  each 
compartment.  The  munificence  of  Mr.  Peter  Cooper  in 
providing  a day  school  of  design  for  females,  and  a night 
school  for  male  students,  is  highly  commendable  and 
worthy  of  example.  I have  examined  the  work  of  the 
students  and  the  premises  of  the  school,  and  feel  sure 
it  is  doing  good  service  in  New  York.  Nevertheless,  the 
school  reminds  me  of  the  time,  twenty  3Tears  ago,  in 
England,  when  the  first  experiments  were  being  tried, 
and  art  schools  were  so  new  that  the  studies  had  not 
been  thoroughly  arranged.  Re-organized,  refitted,  and 
filled  with  an  ample  collection  of  casts  and  works  of 
art,  the  school  and  the  teaching,  good  as  it  may  now  be, 
would  be  twice  as  useful  and  thrice  as  efficient  as  they 
can  be  under  present  circumstances.  The  same  care  for 
the  public  good  which  established  the  institute  will,  I 
feel  sure,  cause  this  improvement  to  be  made.  Art  edu- 
cation is  now,  happily,  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
studied  and  improved  in  its  character  and  appliances 
continually ; and  the  antique  studio  system  is  giving  place 
to  gradation  of  study,  and  sequence  of  subject,  in  class- 
work.  The  blackboard  and  the  lecture-room  must  be 
the  basis  on  which  to  found  an  intelligent  appreciation 
of  the  many  phases  of  knowledge  that  go  to  form  a 


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FITTINGS  FOR  SCHOOLS  OF  ART, 


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ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAINING . 


Ill 


broad  plan  of  art  education ; and  the  lectures  on  per- 
spective and  other  subjects,  which  have  been  made  part 
of  the  course  of  study  in  the  Cooper  Institute,  are  indi- 
cations that  it  is  not  to  be  considered  stationary  in  its 
means  of  usefulness.  The  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
school  will  be  found  in  Appendix  IV. 

The  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  for  Women  is  an- 
other institution  which  seeks  to  provide  an  art  training 
of  a high  class  for  females,  besides  acting  a sort  of  art 
missionary  part  towards  other  schools,  by  presentation 
of  casts,  &c.  Its  casts  and  examples  are  the  same  as 
those  in  use  in  English  schools  of  art ; and  the  course  of 
instruction' is  very  similar.  A very  good  and  terse  de- 
scription of  this  school  appeared  in  “ The  Boston  Daily 
Advertiser  ” of  March,  1872  ; and  I subjoin  it : — 

The  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  for  Women.  Its  location,  collection, 
methods,  and  success. 

I was  delighted  yesterday  with  what  I saw  and  heard  at  the  school 
of  design  for  women  in  this  city.  This  school  was  established  in 
1853,  for  “ the  systematic  training  of  young  women  in  the  practice  of 
art  and  in  the  knowledge  of  its  scientific  principles,  with  the  view  of 
qualifying  them  to  impart  to  others  a careful  art  education,  and  to  de- 
velop its  application  to  the  common  uses  of  life  and  its  relation  to  the 
requirements  of  trade  and  manufactures.”  Tbe  object  set  forth  in 
the  act  of  incorporation  is  held  steadily  in  view,  and  attained  by  a 
course  of  rigidly  systematic  instruction.  Great  difficulties  were  en- 
countered in  obtaining  a suitable  building,  and  such  designs,  models, 
appliances,  and  woiks  of  instruction,  as  are  necessary  to  the  full 
equipment  of  a school  of  art.  These  difficulties  have  been  overcome 
in  great  measure  by  the  efforts  of  the  officers  and  directors,  by  public 
and  private  liberality,  and  by  the  personal  exertions  of  T.  W.  Braid- 
wood,  the  principal  of  the  school  and  its  chief  instructor.  The  li- 
brary, however,  is  still  meagre  ; but  it  is  hoped  it  will  soon  receive  the 
attention  which  its  possibilities  of  usefulness  demand.  I called  two 
hours  before  the  beginning  of  the  daily  session,  and,  introducing  my- 
self as  a practical  teacher,  was  received  with  great  courtesy  by  Mr. 
Braidwood  himself,  who  accompanied  me  to  all  parts  of  the  building, 


112 


ART  EDUCATION. 


assisted  me  in  examining  its  contents,  and  explained  clearly  the 
methods  of  instruction. 

The  building,  formerly  a dwelling-house,  is  situated  at  the  corner 
of  Filbert  Street  and  North-west  Pennsylvania  Square.  It  has  a fair 
supply  of  light,  and  is  as  well  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  such  an  in- 
stitution as  one  could  expect.  It  is  too  small.  A larger  building  of 
peculiar  design,  and  exposed  to  the  light  and  air  on  all  sides,  is 
necessary  to  the  proper  growth  of  the  school.  Great  judgment  has 
been  displayed  in  the  selection  of  casts,  diagrams,  and  other  models. 
In  the  entire  building  I found  not  a piece  of  useless  furniture. 

The  course  of  instruction  varies  in  time  from  two  and  a half  to  four 
and  a half  years,  depending  upon  the  industry  of  the  student.  “ We 
desire  no  geniuses  here,”  said  Mr.  Braid  wood;  “or,  rather,  industry 
is  the  genius  which  we  respect.”  The  growing  interest  in  art  educa- 
tion warrants  me  in  giving  the  order  of  studies  with  some  degree  of 
practical  detail.  [See  Appendix  IV.] 

During  the  two  preceding  stages  (landscape-painting  and  drawing 
from  casts),  students  are  engaged  on  Mondays  in  drawing  and  painting 
in  water-colors,  plant-forms,  mostly  from  nature.  At  the  end  of  the 
advanced  stages,  pupils  may  enter  any  of  the  professional  classes ; viz., 
designing  for  printing  calico,  oil-cloth,  wall-paper,  &c. ; wood-engrav- 
ing, lithograph}-,  drawing,  and  painting  in  oil  and  water  colors,  and 
art  teaching.  In  each  of  these,  the  work  is  accurately  detailed. 

By  a careful  perusal  of  the  scheme  given  in  the  Appendix,  it  will 
be  seen,  in  regard  to  models,  that  the  use  of  real  objects  is  kept  par- 
allel with  that  of  fl  it  diagrams,  a decided  preference  being  given  to  the 
former  ; and,  in  regard  to  metho  1 of  execution,  that  the  same  is  true 
of  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing. 

The  simple  method  and  accurate  result  of  teaching  the  pupils  to 
decide  upon  ami  reproduce  any*  color,  or  any  shade  of  color,  from 
nature,  was  particularly  interesting  ; and  I regret  that  the  technicali- 
ties involved,  and  the  impossibility  of  illustrating  by  diagrams,  pre- 
vent me  from  explaining  here  what,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
may  easily  be  made  intelligible  to  any  ordinary  mind.  Connected 
with  the  regular  class-drill  are  lectures,  which  are  open  to  the  public. 

Rule  10  is  rigidly  enforced  ; and  the  inspection  of  the  finished  pro- 
ductions of  the  pupils  in  every  department  makes  a favorable  impres- 
sion. After  a thorough  explanation  of  the  mechanical  and  intellec- 
tual means  employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  pupils,  I was  convinced 
that  the  power  of  producing  not  merely  creditable,  but  beautiful  and 
valuable  works  of  art  may  be  developed,  and  trained  to  precision,  by 
methods  as  exact  and  progressive  as  those  applied  to  the  purely  intel- 
lectual or  to  the  physical  powers.  W. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


113 


The  National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York,  which  is 
illustrated  in  plate  21,  giyes  an  art  education  of  a pro- 
fessional character,  rather  than  industrial ; and  its  plan 
is  well  stated  in  the  papers  concerning  the  academy, 
obligingly  furnished  for  me  by  its  present  secretary  [See 
Appendix  IV].  It  does  not  enter  into  the  scope  of  my 
subject  so  much  as  others  of  a purely  industrial  kind, 
being  relatively  to  other  institutions  in  America  what 
the  Royal  Academy  in  London  is  to  the  English  provin- 
cial art  schools,  or  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris  is  to 
the  municipal  schools  of  France.  The  genuine  love  of 
art  which  foreign  travel  creates  or  develops,  and  which 
is  now  becoming  so  general  in  this  country,  will,  I hope, 
by  means  of  such  schools  as  the  New-York  Academy, 
foster  the  initiation  of  a national  school  or  style,  and 
terminate  the  importation  of  inferior  French  pictures, 
by  producing  a race  of  professional  artists  who  paint 
better  works  than  those  imported.  The  great  promise 
of  many  young  artists  studying  there  is  an  indication 
that  I do  not  prematurely  anticipate  such  a result. 

The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  in  Boston 
has  already  been  referred  to  in  these  pages.  It  gives  to 
drawing,  both  mechanical  and  free-hand,  a prominent 
place  in  its  studies  and  a large  share  of  its  building,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  engraving.  The  students  in 
chemistry,  engineering,  and  mathematics  are  all  alike 
obliged  to  acquire  a certain  skill  and  proficiency  in  the 
use  of  the  pencil  and  crayon  as  well  as  of  the  drawing- 
pen  and  T square.  But  the  architectural  department  is 
a true  school  of  art  as  far  as  it  goes  ; and  Mr.  Ware,  the 
professor  of  architecture,  whose  testimony  in  favor  of 
art  education  I have  quoted  in  Chap.  I.,  has  able  assist- 
ants, trained  in  both  the  French  and  German  systems 
of  drawing.  This  appreciation  of  what  is  excellent  in 
both  systems  is  equally  displayed  in  the  extensive  col- 


114 


ART  EDUCATION. 


lections,  both  of  casts  and  of  drawings,  from  distinct 
schools,  and  illustrating  different  styles,  which  are  avail- 
able for  these  students.  There  are  few,  if  any,  more 
thoroughly  interesting  museum  studios  in  America  than 
those  of  this  department,  supplemented  as  they  are  by 
the  admirable  collections  of  engineering  models  which 
the  institute  possesses. 

Another  valuable  institution  is  the  Worcester  Free 
Technical  Institute,  the  plans  of  which  are  also  illustrated. 
A larger  amount  of  time  is  given  to  instruction  in  draw- 
ing in  it,  by  each  student,  than  in  any  other  American 
school  probably,  unless  it  be  a professional  art  school ; 
and  when  the  Worcester  school  is  satisfactorily  fur- 
nished with  the  best  examples  of  casts  and  copies,  and 
its  students  come  well  prepared  by  elementary  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  from  the  public  schools,  we  may  look 
forward  to  this  institute  producing  as  valuable  men  in 
art  as  it  already  does  in  scientific  subjects ; whilst  all  its 
graduates  will  be  qualified  by  their  education  to  take  an 
intelligent  interest  in  the  advancement  of  art,  besides 
acquitting  themselves  creditably  when  their  own  art 
powers  are  called  upon.  This  school  has  been  a pioneer 
in  more  ways  than  one,  and  an  especial  honor  to  its 
founders  and  the  city  in  which  it  is  situated.  The 
principal,  Prof.  C.  O.  Thompson,  is  an  ardent  friend  of 
art  education,  which  he  has  striven  to  advance  both  in 
his  own  school  and  in  this  country : and  a great  deal  of 
the  interest  now  felt  in  the  subject  is  due  to  him,  and 
his  far-seeing  advocacy  of  it  as  a commercial  and  social 
agent ; showing  how  much  good  one  really  earnest  man 
may  do  in  a good  cause,  if  actuated  by  public-spirited 
motives.  The  professor  of  drawing,  Mr.  G.  E.  Gladwin, 
has  had  the  advantage  of  European  training  and  study 
for  many  years,  and  is  doing  an  excellent  work  in  the 
school.  Its  system  is  based  on  that  of  South  Kensing- 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


115 


ton,  with  a liberal  leaning  towards  French  methods  ; and 
that  is  precisely  what  should  be  adopted  in  the  educa- 
tion of  adults.  By  the  recognition  of  drawing  as  an 
educational  agent  in  the  studies  of  men  preparing  for 
an  active  life  in  business  and  trade,  much  good  may  be 
effected  ; and  it  seems  to  me  quite  as  desirable  to  ingraft 
the  subject  upon  the  curriculum  of  existing  institutions, 
such  as  that  at  Worcester,  as  to  establish  altogether  new 
agencies  for  its  development.  When  drawing  exists  as 
a department  of  an  institute  for  scientific,  industrial,  or 
general  education,  there  is  created  a constituency  for 
the  special  schools  of  art  which  are  sure  to  follow. 

The  Lowell  Institute  Free  Drawing  School,  which  has 
been  in  operation  since  1850,  furnishes  instruction  in 
drawing  from  objects,  including  geometric  solids,  the 
human  figure,  and  ornament,  to  both  male  and  female 
students,  the  latter  in  afternoon  and  former  in  evening 
classes,  two  lessons  per  week,  each  of  two  hours.  The 
instruction  is  wholly  gratuitous,  being  conducted  as  a 
section  of  the  Lowell  Institute,  supported  by  a fund 
left  in  trust  for  the  advancement  of  good  objects,  such 
as  lectures  by  the  best  men  of  the  day  in  all  intellectual 
subjects,  or  practical  education  in  the  class-room,  of  the 
kind  that  is  not  supplied  by  any  other  agency.  The 
administrator,  the  Hon.  John  Amory  Lowell,  to  whom 
from  a recognition  of  his  zeal  for  the  advancement  of 
art  education  in  America  I have  dedicated  this  book,  has 
kept  the  school  in  active  efficiency  for  above  twenty 
years  ; during  which  time,  some  of  the  best  artists  now 
practising  in  this  country  have  been  students  in  its 
class-rooms.  A life-class,  for  drawing  from  the  nude 
living  model,  is  carried  on  for  the  benefit  of  professional 
students  ; and  the  whole  character  of  the  school,  though 
it  has  supplied  a practical  education  in  drawing  to  many 
workmen,  is  rather  of  the  nature  of  a general  than  an 


116 


ART  EDUCATION. 


industrial  school.  Its  method  of  study  is  somewhat 
severe  upon  the  beginner,  but  there  is  an  entire  absence 
of  meretricious  systems  in  the  stages  of  study.  I look 
forward  to  the  development  of  this  school,  by  increas- 
ing its  range  of  study,  the  multiplying  of  its  classes, 
and  the  adaptation  of  its  materiel  and  class-rooms  to 
modern  requirements,  as  a most  important  feature  in 
the  future  art  educational  institutions  of  Boston.  A 
school  that  is  entirely  free  from  the  trammels  of  being 
over-managed  by  public  bodies  (whose  own  hands  are 
sometimes  tied),  and  which  can  undertake  the  work 
that  other  agencies  are  either  not  allowed  to  engage  in, 
or  which  does  not  appeal  to  their  sympathies,  may  do 
excellent  work  for  the  profession  of  art  and  for  its 
highest  developments.  Such  a school  is  that  of  the 
Lowell  Institute.  In  the  session  of  1871-2,  a hundred 
and  twenty-four  male  and  a hundred  and  twenty-seven 
female  students  were  instructed  in  the  Lowell  school, 
with  an  average  attendance  of  fifty-five  of  the  former 
and  sixty-five  of  the  latter.  The  rooms  used  have 
never  been  able  to  accommodate  the  numbers  seeking 
admission ; but  it  will  be  seen  from  the  numbers  in 
attendance  how  influential  for  good  it  must  have  been 
during  the  past  twenty  years.* 

The  fact  that  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  London,  in  England,  have  recently  established  pro- 
fessorships of  fine  art,  under  the  Slade  bequest,  and 
that  such  distinguished  art  critics  as  Mr.  Ruskin,  Sir 
Matthew  Digby  Wyatt,  and  Mr.  Poynter  have  been 
chosen  respectively  to  fill  the  chairs  of  art  in  the  three 
universities,  suggests  to  us  in  America  that  the  national 
universities  here  might  not  be  entirely  negligent  of 

* The  annual  advertisement  of  the  opening  of  the  school  for  1871-2  will  be  found 
In  Appendix  IV. ; and  Dr.  Cotting,  its  genial  curator,  directs  the  school  for  Mr, 
Lowell. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING. 


117 


their  interests  in  recognizing  among  the  arts  they  study 
that  art  which  is  common  to  every  great  civilization, 
ancient  or  modern.  A step  in  this  direction  has  already 
been  taken  by  Yale  ; and  I give  a statement  of  its  aims, 
forwarded  to  me  by  one  of  the  professors  of  the  univer- 
sity. 

After  describing  the  opening  lecture  of  the  session 
of  1872,  the  account  says,  — 

“ The  course  itself  begins  the  second  term  of  a practical  working  art 
school  here  in  New  Haven,  — a school  wider  in  its  plan,  and  intended 
to  be  more  thorough  and  advanced  in  its  instruction,  than  any  school 
of  fine  arts  in  this  country.  There  are  now  three  professorships  filled 
by  men  who  are  devoting  their  whole  energies  to  the  work.  Prof. 
Weir  holds  the  department  of  painting;  and  to  him  also  falls  the 
branches  of  the  theory  and  philosophy  of  art.  Prof.  Henry  Niemeyer 
is  professor  of  drawing ; but  his  training  at  the  Paris  Ecote  des  Beaux 
Arts  enables  him  to  fill,  as  the  growing  needs  of  the  school  may  de- 
mand, the  place  of  teacher  of  perspective  and  design.  Prof.  D. 
Cady  Eaton  is  engaged  with  the  history  of  art.  This  faculty  have 
elaborated  a scheme  of  art  study  which  shall  be  as  comprehensive 
and  as  definite  in  its  sphere  as  that  of  the  academic  department  is  in 
its  own.  Their  idea,  following  out  that  of  the  founder  of  the  school, 
Mr.  A.  R.  Street,  is  to  build  up  an  art  home.  It  is  to  be  a place  where 
all  possible  influences  for  the  fostering  of  art  knowledge  and  criti- 
cism and  taste  shall  centre ; which  shall  send  out,  in  time,  an  art 
sentiment  which  shall  be  felt  in  the  whole  country.  It  will  act  with 
the  university,  and  have  all  the  fostering  care,  and  the  same  effects 
of  general  culture,  that  the  university  gives  to  the  learned  professions. 
It  is  the  great  difficulty  and  obstacle  to  American  artists,  that  they 
find  in  their  own  country  no  place  where  thorough  and  symmetrical 
art  training  can  be  had.  There  is  no  place  from  which  are  diffused 
the  long  collected  treasures  of  art  traditions,  and  in  which  may  be 
found  the  influence  of  the  presence  of  the  monuments  of  art  and  of 
artists.  For  this  they  must  go  to  Europe.  This  is  the  want  this 
school  is  intended  to  supply.  By  pursuing  the  best  European  methods, 
the  art  faculty  propose  to  make,  if  possible,  a standard  of  art  in- 
struction higher  and  more  effective  than  any  thing  yet  tried  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  a bold  hope ; but  yet  it  is  cherished,  that,  with  suitable 
encouragement,  there  can  be  established  a centre  of  art  culture  which 


118 


ART  EDUCATION. 


shall  remove  the  necessity  of  study  at  foreign  schools.  Not  that  the 
necessity  for  foreign  study  of  all  kinds  is  to  be  withdrawn.  The  mana- 
gers of  the  schools,  artists  themselves,  know  that  no  instruction  can 
take  the  place  of  that  thorough  and  careful  study  of  the  monuments 
of  art  themselves  which  only  the  galleries  of  Europe  can  furnish. 
But  now  a man  cannot  go  from  this  country  prepared  to  enter  upon 
such  study.  He  needs  years  of  preliminary  drill  and  training, 
which  only  European  schools  can  give.  This  is  the  want  the  New 
Haven  school  of  fine  arts  would  supply.  Success  in  this  effort  will 
have  a double  result.  The  home  work  of  American  artists  will  be 
greatly  improved.  If  there  appear  no  genius,  and  if  originality 
be  wanting,  there  will  at  least  be  that  perfection  of  work,  and  some- 
thing of  that  practised  and  informed  judgment,  which  are  now  so 
uniformly  absent,  and  which  so  clearly  distinguish  the  foreign  from 
the  native  painter.  And  though  the  influences  of  great  works  will  be 
missed,  such  a full  and  symmetrical  education  as  this  scheme  pro- 
poses must  prune  away  crudities.  Another  effect  will  be  to  raise  the 
standard  of  taste.  The  school  is  expected  and  intended  to  work  not 
only  upon  artists  as  such,  but  upon  all  the  educated  men  who  are  to 
go  out  from  the  University.  No  man  will  bear  a degree  from  Yale 
heneelbrth  who  lias  not  had  ample  opportunity  to  become  familiar 
with  the  principles  of  art  criticism,  the  canons  of  taste,  and  some- 
thing of  the  history  and  development  of  art.  This,  which  has  been 
wanting  hitherto  in  all  university  courses,  cannot  but  have  a wide 
influence.  And  in  this  union  of  influences,  in  this  educating  at  once 
artists  and  critics,  producers,  and  those  who  will  create  the  demand, 
lies  the  peculiarity,  and,  it  is  hoped,  the  distinctive  merit,  of  this  plan. 
That  it  lias  been  attempted  is  worthy  of  notice  and  remark;  and 
though  its  success  should  be  for  a time  but  limited,  and  its  progress 
slow,  its  existence  is  a proof  of  real  art  feeling  and  a desire  for  its 
most  perfect  development.” 

It  is  comforting  to  find,  that,  in  so  many  centres,  the 
same  desire  exists  to  establish  not  only  a school,  but  the 
school  of  art,  which  is  to  fructify  the  incipient  taste  of 
America;  and,  from  accounts  which  are  daily  reaching  me 
from  all  parts  of  the  country,  I think  that  Boston  and 
Harvard  must  be  up  and  doing,  if  they  cherish  their 
ancient  reputation  in  arts,  or  value  their  traditional 
character  as  leaders  in  education. 


Shelf. 


FITTINGS  FOR  SCHOOLS  OF  ART 


ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  DRAWING  FROM  MODELS  AND  OBJECTS. 
COOPER  INSTITUTE,  NEW  YORK. 

Scale  of  feet. 


Plan  of  Foitr^si 


I 


i Divisions. 


STUDENT  DRAWING  FROM  THE  MODEL. 
Cooper  Institute,  New  York. 


Shelf. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING.  119 


That  this  is  already  felt  in  Boston,  the  beginning  of 
a collection  for  the  fine-arts  museum,  before  it  is  built, 
is  a sufficient  proof.  By  a combination  of  fortunate 
accidents,  and  the  keen  watchfulness  of  vigilant  eyes, 
several  small  collections  of  both  ancient  and  mediaeval 
objects  have  already  been  secured  for  public  exhibition, 
of  a character  which  is  enough  in  itself  to  give  tone  to 
the  museum  when  it  is  opened.  How  much  depends 
upon  this  may  be  calculated  by  all  who  have  seen  the 
influence  of  national  collections  in  other  countries,  and 
the  untold  effects  on  the  industry  of  all  countries  where 
a tender  care  has  been  felt  for  the  promotion  of  educa- 
tion through  such  collections.  And  though  America 
will  be  wealthy  enough,  and  before  very  long  eager 
enough,  to  possess  museums  of  art  in  all  her  great  States, 
the  supply  even  of  antiquities  and  modern  master-pieces 
is  not  unlimited  ; and  therefore  we  can  expect  great 
collections  in  but  one  or  two  places  on  this  continent. 
Whatever  may  be  done  elsewhere,  it  is  certain  that  one 
of  these  collections  will  be  in  Boston ; and  the  frontis- 
piece of  this  book,  an  engraving  of  the  building  now  in 
course  of  erection  for  the  Boston  Fine  Arts  Museum, 
will  be  ample  testimony  of  the  spirit  of  Massachusetts 
and  her  capital  city  to  provide  a fitting  dwelling-place  for 
the  arts  of  the  past  and  the  present.  What  Athens  was 
in  ancient  times,  and  V enice  in  the  brilliant  epoch  of  me- 
diseval  art,  Boston,  another  city  by  the  sea,  may  aspire  to 
be  in  the  modern  civilization  of  the  New  World ; and  that 
such  a character  it  is  in  her  instinct  and  ambition  to 
assume  may  be  inferred  by  recent  experience.  It  needs 
but  that  the  princely  gifts  of  her  men  of  wealth  shall  be 
sometimes  directed  towards  cherishing  and  sustaining 
the  arts,  and  then  the  glory  of  other  ages  and  peoples 
may  be  revived  among  us  to-day,  in  the  youth  and  with 
the  vigor  of  a great  nation  ; and,  as  America’s  national 


120 


ART  EDUCATION. 


poet  has  sung  in  words  which  have  been  read  in  every 
modern  language,  “ the  artist  never  dies,”  so  more 
truly  may  it  be  said  of  art,  that  it  ma}^  be  eclipsed  but 
never  destroyed,  rising  again  from  Egyptian  tombs,  or 
descending  to  us  from  Greek  temples,  or  speaking  to  us 
from  the  buried  Pompeian  households,  until  the  utter- 
ance of  peaceful  arts  shall  become  the  universal  lan- 
guage, and,  in  the  godlike  faculty  of  creating  the  beau- 
tiful, men  shall  discover  their  greatest  happiness  and 
their  universal  brotherhood. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY,  — FRENCH, 
ENGLISH,  AND  GERMAN. 

IN  a country  like  America,  where,  in  the  matter  of  art, 
educationists  are  not  bound  either  by  traditional 
formulae  . or  opposing  schools,  it  might  be  well  to  consider 
the  methods  of  study  pursued  in  other  countries  before 
any  be  adopted  in  this.  More  than  once  in  these  pages, 
I have  expressed  the  opinion,  that  no  system  of  instruc- 
tion developed  elsewhere  is  wholly  suited  to  the  require- 
ments of  America ; and  that  what  is  wanted  here  will 
grow,  by  the  accumulation  of  experience,  into  a national 
system,  indigenous  to  the  soil,  any  feature  of  which 
being  transplanted  from  other  places  must  undergo  a 
process  of  acclimation  and  transformation  before  it  will 
become  assimilated  by  our  necessities. 

The  building-up  of  such  a system  must,  however,  be 
a work  of  time  ; and  meanwhile,  now  as  in  the  past,  this 
country  must  rely  very  much  on  the  experience  of  other 
countries  for  suggestions  of  methods,  where  experiments 
have  passed  into  systems.  To  describe  the  three  best 
known  methods,  so  that  opinions  may  be  formed  con- 
cerning them,  is  my  aim  in  this  chapter ; and  having, 
by  practical  and  long  connection  with  schools  of  art,  had 
many  opportunities  of  testing  the  efficiency  of  the 

121 


122 


ART  EDUCATION. 


several  methods  referred  to,  1 may  say,  that  the  con- 
clusions here  expressed  are  derived  from  close  observa- 
tions in  the  class-room,  where  distinct  systems  have  been 
put  into  operation.  So  little  of  serious  consideration 
has  ever  been  given  to  this  phase  of  education  by  prac- 
tical men, — whilst  in  many  countries  it  is  even  now 
quite  new,  — that  we  may  expect  in  any  new  system 
very  great  changes  from  either  plan  described,  when  the 
subject  is  thoroughly  investigated  and  analyzed. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  consider  the  professional  art 
education  of  the  three  countries,  — that  being  another 
branch  of  the  subject,  — but  to  describe  the  nature  of 
studies  carried  on  in  the  schools  for  workmen  supposed 
to  be  employed  in  industrial  occitpations.  In  France 
the  municipal  schools,  in  England  the  local  schools  of 
art,  and  in  Germany  the  night  drawing-classes,  which 
are  now  almost  general,  are  the  places  where,  for  arti- 
sans, industrial  drawing  is  taught. 

The  French  municipal  schools  vary  in  the  character 
of  their  studies,  much  as  their  masters  vary ; there  being 
no  national  organization  or  test  which  would  assimilate 
them  to  a common  standard,  and  require  uniformity  of 
study.  But  the  points  of  difference  are  limited  to 
details,  and  are  comparati  . ely  unimportant : a description 
of  one  school  would  therefore,  with  slight  modifications, 
apply  to  all.  In  the  year  1863  I was  commissioned  by 
the  Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  English  Govern- 
ment to  go  to  Paris,  and  examine  and  report  upon  afi 
exhibition  of  the  works  of  the  municipal  schools  and 
drawing-classes  then  being  displayed  in  the  Palais  de 
rinclustrie.  The  very  general  use  of  methods  of  study, 
— such  as  the  ignoring  of  outline  drawing,  and  the  use  of 
stump  and  leather  in  shading,  — which  were  tabooed  in 
England,  made  the  examination  of  the  works  of  especial 
interest  to  me  ; and  I expressed,  in  my  report,  favorable 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  123 


opinions  concerning  the  value  of  some  processes  and 
modes  of  work  which  were  very  unpopular  with  home 
authorities  at  that  time.  During  the  year  1867,  that  of 
the  last  Great  International  Exhibition,  I spent  a con- 
siderable time  in  Paris,  examining,  for  literary  purposes, 
the  contents  of  the  Exhibition  : among  which  the  most 
interesting  portion  to  me  was  the  display  of  drawings 
illustrating  the  various  national  methods  of  art  educa- 
tion. Subsequent  visits  to  the  schools  which  had  pro- 
duced the  best  French  drawings,  and  observation  of 
works  in  progress  in  the  severalydasses  as  carried  on  by 
the  students,  gave  me  ample  opportunity  of  arriving  at 
fair  conclusions  concerning  the  character  of  their  pro- 
ductions, and  of  the  system  on  which  those  works  are 
produced.  My  impressions  were  favorable,  and  have 
since  remained  so ; one  ground  of  approval  being,  that 
the  method  of  instruction,  implements,  and  style  of  work 
adopted,  are  apparently  as  well  suited  to  adult  beginners 
as  to  the  more  experienced,  and  to  the  ignorant  as  to 
the  well  educated.  To  one  of  these  schools  in  Paris, 
— that  of  M.  Lequien  fils,  — I paid  several  visits;  and, 
regarding  it  as  a representative  school,  wrote  a descrip- 
tion of  it,  which  appeared  at  the  time  in  “ The  London 
Builder.”  I now  give  the  programme,  or  prospectus, 
of  the  school,  with  the  description  referred  to.* 

The  “ Ecole  Municipale  de  Dessin  et  de  Sculpture,” 
of  the  10th  Arrondissement  of  Paris,  situated  in  the 
Rue  des  P6tits  Hotels,  is  conducted  by  M.  Lequien 
fils , whose  father  has  long  been  engaged  as  master  of 
a municipal  school  in  another  part  of  Paris.  M.  Le- 
quien fils  is  professionally  a sculptor,  and  his  school 
has  a high  reputation  for  drawing  and  modelling. 

From  information  concerning  the  principal  schools,  we 


* For  programme,  see  Appendix. 


124 


ART  EDUCATION. 


are  justified  in  regarding  M.  Lequien’s  as  a good  repre- 
sentative of  its  order,  and  especially  so  of  the  peculiarly 
characteristic  method  of  teaching  drawing,  — alike  in  all 
the  schools,  — which  was  to  be  seen  there  in  operation. 
The  students  varied  in  age  from  fifteen  years  to  thirty, 
and  seemed  to  be  clad  in  the  ordinary  costume  of  the 
workman  ; no  effort  being  made  to  appear  in  best  clothes, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  English  schools  of  art. 

Beginning  with  a pupil  who  had  been  but  a few  days 
in  the  school,  and  had  not  previously  studied  in  an  art 
school,  and  going  on  through  the  various  stages  until  we 
came  to  the  work  of  young  men  who  were  drawing 
from  the  living  model,  and  who  were  employed  in  the 
daytime  as  designers  for  the  French  manufacturing 
firms,  at  large  salaries,  the  whole  of  the  students’  draw- 
ings were  carefully  examined,  in  the  presence  and  with 
the  explanation  of  the  professor. 

Afterwards  all  the  works  produced  during  the  past 
year,  some  of  which  were  in  the  Exposition,  and  many 
others  still  in  the  school,  were  displayed  by  M.  Lequien  ; 
and  information  concerning  the  ages,  occupations,  and 
length  of  time  occupied  in  study  and  production  of  the 
drawings,  was  communicated  by  him  also.  It  seems, 
then,  that  in  teaching  drawing  but  one  medium  is  used, 
— carbon,  chalk,  or  charcoal ; and  from  first  to  last  the 
drawings  are  made  upon  a coarse,  cheap  paper,  of  a gray 
color,  very  much  like  what  grocers  wrap  their  moist 
sugar  in,  only  that  the  drawing-paper  is  not  of  quite  so 
good  a quality.  There  are  three  stages  of  study:  — 

1.  From  lithographed  shaded  copies  or  original  draw- 
ings. 

2.  Shading,  from  the  cast,  of  figure  and  ornament. 

3.  Shading  from  the  living  model. 

The  examples  used  by  beginners  were  simple,  bold 
details  of  ornament,  drawn  with  thick  lines,  and  having 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  125 


little  more  than  half-tint  shadows : perhaps  there  were 
as  many  as  three  degrees  of  shade,  all  being  boldly 
expressed  by  lines. 

The  point  used  was  such  as  a boy  of  fifteen  would  be 
able  or  willing  to  keep  on  a stick  of  charcoal,  and  the 
means  of  erasure  was  a piece  of  wash-leather. 

The  student  is  placed  at  a distance  of  perhaps  a yard 
from  his  copy,  which  is  hung  on  a screen  or  the  wall  in 
a glazed  frame,  and  which  he  is  not  allowed  to  touch  or 
measure  from.  Painful  was  the  mess  made  by  the  first 
two  or  three  boys,  with  their  blunt  points  making  such 
heavy  black  lines,  and  their  still  blunter  eyesight,  which 
betrayed  them  into  such  doleful  errors.  “ But,”  said  M. 
Lequien,  “ they  soon  tire  of  this  black  mess  and  these 
frivolous  lines,  and  get  to  cleaner  habits  and  more  accu- 
rate observation  of  form.  This  boy,  fifth  up  the  line 
from  the  bottom  of  the  school,  has  been  here  two 
months,  and  has  done  twenty  drawings  ; and  you  see  he 
is  already  using  his  charcoal  in  an  economical  manner, 
and  putting  shadow  in  only  where  he  sees  it  in  the 
copy.” 

The  pupils  attend  five  nights  in  the  week  for  two 
hours ; and  it  is  commonly  in  the  indentures  of  the  jmung 
apprentice,  that  he  attend  a municipal  school  of  art,  for 
which  his  master  pays  the  fee.  At  the  first  about  two 
of  these  simple,  rough  drawings  are  made  in  a week, 
— imperfect  many  of  them,  but  each  showing  some  ad- 
vance on  the  last.  Thus  the  interest  of  the  pupil  is 
kept  up  by  a change  of  examples,  and  he  is  never  allowed 
to  form  a habit  of  slow  or  monotonous  work.  A little 
further  on  in  the  school  the  examples  used  are  larger 
and  more  elaborate  pieces  of  ornament,  in  which  either 
the  human  or  animal  form  is  partially  introduced. 

This  takes  the  students  as  many  evenings  as  his 
earlier  copies  occupied  hours,  and  some  of  them  as 


126 


ART  EDUCATION. 


many  weeks  as  the  more  elementary  examples  took 
evening's  to  copy.  But  by  this  time  his  work  has  lost  all • 
traces  of  blackness  and  messiness,  the  shadows  become 
delicate  and  transparent,  the  free  outlines  made  bjr  the 
soft  and  willing  charcoal  are  firm  and  expressive,  the 
white  chalk  begins  to  express  light  and  direct  reflection, 
and  the  workman  appears  to  be  getting  master  of  his 
medium.  The  improvement  appears  to  be  startling,  and 
M.  Lequien  says  it  is  not  exceptional.  He  objects  to 
outline-drawing  with  lead-pencil  as  a commencement, 
and  thinks  more  power  is  got  by  regarding  drawing  as 
the  imitation  of  masses  of  light  and  shade  from  the  first 
to  the  last.  Judging  from  what  we  saw,  there  certainly 
appears  to  be  a corrective  influence  in  adding  the  shadow 
to  the  outline,  which  mere  outline  cannot  have  by  itself. 
By  adding  shadow  to  bad  form,  you  intensify  the  errors: 
mistakes  of  proportion  become  evident,  and  bad  lines 
become  uglier  still. 

The  middle  stage  is  drawing  from  the  cast,  the  same 
medium  being  used:  good  specimens  of  drawings  made 
by  previous  pupils  are  displayed  for  the  student’s  guid- 
ance in  his  first  efforts ; and  the  casts  are  very  simple 
in  form, — sometimes  a section  of  the  echinus  mould- 
ing; one  acanthus  leaf  from  an  antique  capital;  a cast 
of  the  eve,  mouth,  or  chin  from  heroic  busts;  or  mask 
of  a smooth  face.  By  the  time  the  student  arrives 
at  this  stage,  he  has  mastered  his  vehicle  of  expres- 
sion partially,  — not  so  completely  as  he  will  when  he 
gets  to  the  living  model ; but  it  no  longer  gives  him 
trouble  and  vexation  of  spirit  by  doing  in  his  hands 
just  what  he  wishes  not  done.  The  process  of  drawing 
from  the  cast  may  thus  be  stated : the  large  forms  are 
firstly  indicated  by  faint  outlines,  and  the  lines  divid- 
ing masses  of  light  from  shadow  are  touched  in.  The 
shapes  of  shadows  are  drawn,  but  shade  is  not  at  first 


21 


NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN,  NEW  YORK. 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  127 


expressed : * when  a sort  of  map  of  the  form  has  been 
thus  obtained,  the  cast  shadows  are  rubbed  in  flatly 
with  wash-leather  and  soft  chalk,  and  deeper  tints  in 
these  shadows  drawn  in  with  the  blunt  point  of  a 
leather  stump.  In  this  condition,  the  drawing  looks 
exactly  like  a faintly-printed  photograph ; and  it  seems 
to  me  that  is  some  recommendation  of  the  sj^stem, 
which  is  natural,  effective,  and  simple.  Then  the 
student,  having  obtained  the  general  effect  of  his  sub- 
ject, proceeds  to  add  the  shades,  whether  faint  or  deep, 
of  the  half-tints,  blending  them  into  the  shadows,  and 
afterwards  taking  out,  by  means  of  a clean  corner  of  his 
wash-leather,  the  reflected  light  in  the  shadows,  and 
by  the  use  of  white  chalk  adding  the  high  lights,  used 
thickly  or  thinly  according  to  the  amount  of  brilliancy 
of  the  light.  The  gray  paper  stands  for  the  natural 
color  of  the  cast ; or  sometimes  much  white  chalk  is 
used,  and  the  color  of  the  paper  then  becomes  a half- 
tint  to  express  the  lighter  shades.  This  mode  of  draw- 
ing from  the  cast  is  a rapid  one  in  comparison  with  the 
English  method  of  stippling  shadow  with  the  chalk- 
point  ; and  it  is  very  much  more  effective.  A week,  or 
even  a month,  may  be  spent  on  a subject  from  the  cast  by 
M.  Lequien’s  pupils,  — seldom  more ; and  the  drawings 
made  are  varied  in  size  according  to  the  pupil’s  powers, 
— from  a foot-square  representation  of  a hand,  or  a leaf, 
to  a cartoon  on  strained  canvas,  some  five  feet  or  six 
feet  square,  of  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  or  the  actual  size 
of  a section  of  the  Panathenaic  frieze.  Very  lovely  in 
feeling,  and  truth  of  chiaroscuro,  were  many  of  these 
large  drawings  from  the  cast,  — absolute  imitation  of 
natural  effect  being  the  aim  of  the  student ; and  every 
detail  of  form  was  careful  A rendered,  either  by  the 

* Shade  is  tbe  partial  absence,  of  direct  light  on  an  object;  shadow,  the  total 
absence. 


128 


ART  EDUCATION. 


sharp  hits  of  forcible  shadows  occurring  where  the  light 
was  strongest,  or  by  delicate  modulations  in  the  broad 
shadows,  or  in  the  play  of  reflected  light  on  the  prom- 
inent portions  of  the  unilluminated  parts  of  the  cast. 
The  subjects  used  for  study  are  similar  to  those  in  use 
in  the  British  Royal  Academy  and  schools  of  art,  with 
the  addition  of  a few  good  modern  French  busts  and 
figures. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  antique  and  French  Renais- 
sance are  the  styles  of  ornament  which  exclusively  sup- 
ply the  ornamental  casts,  no  example  of  Gothic  being 
apparently  used.  The  final  stage,  after  the  practice  of 
figure-drawing  from  the  antique,  is  drawing  from  the 
living  nude  model. 

In  this  stage,  onl}r  the  more  advanced  students  study ; 
and  a very  considerable  power  in  drawing  has  been 
acquired  previously  to  commencing  from  the  living  sub- 
ject. A longer  time  is  given  to  each  model  than  we 
are  prepared  to  expect,  — - three  hours  each  evening  for 
five  nights  a week  being  allotted  to  each  study.  A 
very  great  amount  of  care  is  expended  on  the  form  of 
the  figure  ; and  the  degree  of  finish  is  expected  to  be 
higher,  though  even  in  this  the  effect  and  truth  of 
drawing  are  considered  of  more  importance  than  finish. 
Stump  and  leather  are  used  also  in  drawing  from  the 
life:  they  may,  in  fact,  be  considered  as  universal  in 
teaching  drawing  in  France.  Besides  drawing,  mod- 
elling is  practised  in  the  schools,  in  similar  stages  as 
already  described  for  drawing,  alto-relievo  being  the 
general  method  adopted  for  studying  the  antique  and 
living  figure.  Ornament  appears  rarely  to  be  copied, 
though  original  designs  for  special  purposes  of  orna- 
mental treatment  were  exhibited  to  us  as  the  work  of 
the  students  ; and  these  were  well  designed  and  very 
spiritedly  modelled.  French  art  masters  appear  to 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  129 


believe  that  figure  practice  includes  the  study  of  all 
kinds  of  form,  and  that  a good  draughtsman  of  the 
human  figure  can  draw  ornament,  or  design  decoration, 
in  any  style,  as  a matter  of  course.  The  evidence  is 
rather  in  favor  of  this  view,  — at  any  rate,  so  far  as 
drawing  goes.  In  another  class,  a few  students  were 
drawing,  from  examples,  architectural  line  drawings  and 
projections  of  geometric  solids ; but  there  was  nothing 
in  this  portion  of  the  schoo-l  studies  in  any  way  remark- 
able. 

The  drawings  of  the  Toulouse  School  of  Industrial 
Science  are  so  excellent,  that  those  who  adhere  entirely 
to  the  system  of  study  described  in  the  Paris  school, 
and  which  is  the  same  as  at  Toulouse,  may  do  so  with 
confidence  for  adult  classes.*  It  must  not,  however,  be 
supposed  that  this  free  and  powerful  fhode  of  work  can 
be  resorted  to  without  the  aid  of  good  examples  and 
excellent  instructors  ; so  much  depending  on  the  process, 
that  continued  correction  and  supervision  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  are  required,  — more  so  than  in  the  Eng- 
lish and  German  methods,  where  the  pupils  begin  with 
practice  in  outline.  Nor  do  I consider-  the  French 
method  adapted  for  children  in  day-schools,  having 
mj^self  fairly  tried  it,  and  having  been  compelled  to  re- 
turn from  it  to  the  English  method  of  blackboard  work, 
from  the  impossibility  of  giving  to  each  pupil  the 
requisite  amount  of  instruction  to  guide  him,  when  in 
a large  class.  It  may  be  said  that  drawing  from  the 
solid  object  necessitates  individual  rather  than  class 
instruction ; and  beginners  who  commence  with  models, 
or  even  shading,  must  have  their  steps  guided  and 
closely  watched  ; for  all  the  difficul  ties  are  upon  them  at 
once.  Where  I have  found  the  French  system  most  suc- 


* See  Appendix,  for  Toulouse  Programme. 


130 


ART  EDUCATION. 


cessful  has  been  with  adults  who  have  never  learned  to 
draw  at  all,  but  are  capable  of  understanding  and  remem- 
bering concise  explanations,  and  where  the  number  of 
pupils  to  one  teacher  is  small. 

The  one  great  defect  of  the  curriculum , as  displayed 
in  the  schools,  though  not  in  the  prospectuses,  is,  that  it 
ignores  nature  so  far  as  drawing  from  foliage  and  flowers, 
or  practice  in  color,  goes.  In  free-hand  drawing,  casts  and 
solid  models  of  ornament,  or  the  human  figure,  together 
with  geometric  solids,  are  the  only  round  forms  used ; 
and  thus  French  design  of  sculptured  ornament  is,  as 
a rule,  a repetition  or  modification  of  classic  or  Italian 
or  French  Renaissance  ornament,  such  as  the  students 
have  been  educated  from.  That  is  a serious  omission  in 
any  course  of  study ; and  though  occasional  mention 
of  studies  from  natural  foliage  is  made  in  the  prospec- 
tuses of  schools,  yet  in  practice  the  work  is  nominal. 

The  virtue  of  the  French  method  is  its  rapidity  and 
effect,  by  which  it  is  possible  to  arrive  at  power  of  hand, 
and  knowledge  of  light  and  shade,  within  a reasonable 
time  ; and,  considering  the  short  average  time  spent  by 
students  in  art  schools,-  that  is  a great  advantage.  The 
wisest  use  which  could  be  made  in  this  country  of 
the  Fiench  system  would  be  for  adults  in  night  classes, 
who  come  utterly  unprepared  by  elementary  instruc- 
tion, and  have  more  need  for  readiness  of  hand  and 
eye  than  time  for  a thorough  training  of  both.  In  time 
sketches,  and  studies  of  imaginary  effects  of  light  and 
shade,  stump  and  leather  work  is  excellent  as  a medium 
for  shading ; and  it  could  be  used  for  examinations  with 
advantage. 

In  the  subjects  which  form  so  large  a proportion 
of  the  course  in  English  schools  of  art,  — instrumental 
drawing,  — very  little  is  done  in  the  French  art  schools; 
but  in  the  scientific  classes  of  ordinary  educational  insti- 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  131 


tutes,  and  in  some  special  schools,  great  attention  is 
given  to  both  mechanical  and  architectural  drawing.  I 
remember  that  the  school  for  adults  in  the  Marche  St. 
Martin,  Paris,  and  the  Institution  Rossat,  at  Charle- 
ville,  used  to  give  almost  their  whole  attention  to  scien- 
tific drawing,  and  were  very  successful  in  it.  Perspec- 
tive and  descriptive  geometry  rvas  also  studied,  and 
admirably  illustrated  by  models  in  glass  and  thread  to 
show  results,  and  mode  of  work. 

The  French  schools,  whether  purely  scientific  or 
artistic,  or  a combination  of  both,  have  advantages  over 
similar  institutions  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  in 
possessing  the  most  complete  examples  for  instruction 
that  are  to  be  found,  whether  in  mechanical  drawing, 
building  construction,  or  in  light  and  shade  from  casts ; 
and  their  courses  of  lessons  in  many  branches  of  art 
study,  particularly  tliat  of  the  figure,  are  so  good  as  to 
be  in  use  all  over  the  world.  At  the  same  time  very 
many  of  the  colored  publications  which  are  sometimes 
used  in  French  drawing-classes  are  execrable ; and  it  is 
quite  unsafe  to  purchase  any  examples  from  Paris, 
choosing  them  on  speculation  from  their  titles  in  a book- 
seller’s list.  In  the  Appendix  will  be  found  a copy 
of  the  list  of  French  examples  purchased  for  the  city  of 
Boston,  and  selected  by  myself  with  some  care.  All 
are  not  equally  good,  but  there  are  no  bad  works  ; and 
selections  from  that  list  may  be  made  with  confidence. 
The  whole  of  these  copies  will  be  required  for  a draw- 
ing-class which  is  in  its  second  year’s  work. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  description  given  of  French 
art  study,  that  the  idea  acted  upon  is  to  develop  a power 
of  drawing  by  study  of  effects  of  light  and  shade,  leav- 
ing the  student  to  apply  this  power  to  his  own  wants  in 
industry.  When  instruction  is  required  in  special  or 
technical  studies,  such  as  flower-painting  or  porcelain- 


132 


ART  EDUCATION. 


painting,  it  is  usually  given  in  a school  for  that  purpose. 
Thus,  in  the  school  of  Mtllle.  Henriette  Lecluse  in 
Paris,  pupils  are  prepared  for  their  work  as  industrial 
artists  by  practising  drawing  from  flowers,  designing 
ornament  for  fans,  &c. ; but  it  is  seldom  that  this  sec- 
on  buy  education  is  included  in  the  work  of  the  draw- 
ing-schools. The  programme  of  studies  in  this  school 
will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

If  we  turn  from  the  French  system  to  examine  the 
English  or  German  methods  of  instruction,  the  differ- 
ence between  them  at  once  appears  very  obvious ; and 
the  elaborate  character  of  the  two  latter  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  an  examination  of  their  programmes  of  study. 
There  is  no  fundamental  difference  between  the  English 
and  German  systems,  except  that  the  latter  is  the  more 
scientific  of  the  two.  The  programmes  of  the  South 
KeiTsington  School  and  the  Industrial  School  at  Nurem- 
berg (both  of  which  are  printed  in  the  Appendix), 
represent  the  courses  of  studies  pursued  in  the  national 
drawing-schools  of  England  and  Germany,  limited  only 
by  local  circumstances.  In  England  the  same  stages 
of  study  are  common  to  both  the  national  training- 
school  and  the  local  schools  of  art ; and,  from  the  fact 
that  the  masters  of  the  provincial  schools  are  all  trained 
and  examined,  and  receive  their  diplomas  upon  the  same 
course  as  they  afterwards  give  instruction  to  their  pupils 
in,  only  of  a much  more  advanced  grade,  there  is  a 
general  similarity  in  the  works  of  all  the  schools,  and 
harmony  in  the  national  system.  This  systematizing 
of  art  study  is  made  more  certain  by  the  annual  ex- 
aminations of  the  schools  in  every  grade  of  study,  with 
the  same  tests  for  each  grade  in  every  school  through- 
out the  country ; and  this  unification  extends  even  to 
holding  the  annual  examinations  at  the  same  hour  in 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  133 


all  the  schools  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  building 
up  of  this  system  has  taken  many  years  to  accomplish  ; 
the  schools  of  design  dating  from  1836,  when  the  Gov- 
ernment established  the  head  school  at  Somerset  House 
in  London,  and  several  provincial  schools.  The  dis- 
tinctive features,  however,  of  the  English  scheme  date 
only  from  the  year  1851 ; and  the  details  have  been 
wrought  out  and  consolidated  by  successful  experi- 
ments since  that  time.  The  administration  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art  of  the 
Committee  of  Council  on  Education,  a department 
of  the  government ; and  thus  uniformity  of  plan  is 
secured.  The  agencies  for  industrial  art  education  em- 
ployed are,  (first),  a museum  of  industrial  masterpieces; 
and  a large  portion  of  the  national  collection  of  pictures 
in  connection  with,  (secondly),  a national  training-school 
for  art  masters,  both  located  in  the  same  building,  a plan 
of  which,  together  with  a view  of  one  portion,  is-illus- 
tratedinplates26and40;  (thirdly),  a travelling  museum 
for  exhibition  in  the  provinces,  which  circulates  good 
specimens  of  industrial  art,  and  forms  the  nucleus  for 
local  exhibitions,  and  also  the  circulation  of  books  and 
paintings,  on  loan,  to  provincial  schools ; (fourthly),  exam- 
ination and  supervision  of  all  grades  of  art  instruction 
carried  on  in.  connection  with  the  national  system. 
Art  instruction  is  divided  into  three  grades,  progressing 
in  difficulty  from  the  first,  and  called  First,  Second,  and 
Third  Grade.  Teachers  are  trained  and  certificated,  to 
give  instruction  in  each,  according  to  their  powers;  and, 
thus  qualified,  the  Government  recognizes  their  qualifica- 
tions by  paying,  on  a published  scale,  a sum  of  money  for 
each  successful  examination  passed  by  the  pupils  of  these 
certificated  teachers. 

The  First  G-rade  of  instruction  is  that  given  in 
day  schools  to  children  by  teachers  holding  the  sec- 


134 


ART  EDUCATION. 


ond-grade  certificate.  Examiuations  in  this  grade  are 
conducted  in  three  subjects,  — free-hand,  model,  and 
geometrical  drawing.  1 have  illustrated  this  grade  of 
instruction  by  specimens  of  the  examination-papers, 
which  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix.  The  examina- 
tions are  held  annually  in  March. 

The  Second  Grade  comprises  the  elementary  instruc- 
tion given  in  schools  of  art  and  night  drawing-classes, 
and  is  the  grade  in  which  teachers  of  the  national  or 
common  schools  become  certificated.  The  subjects  are 
free-hand,  model,  geometrical,  and  perspective  drawing, 
— all  in  outline;  to  which  is  added,  for  teachers,  black- 
board drawing  from  memory.  Orthographic  projection, 
or  solid  geometry,  used  to  be  also  included  in  this  group  ; 
but  it  has  recently  been  removed  to  the  science  subjects 
of  examination. 

The  standard  of  second  grade  may  be  judged  by  look- 
ing at  the  group  of  papers  printed  in  the  Appendix. 
The  examinations  are  held  annually  in  each  town  or 
village  in  the  month  of  May. 

The  'Third  Grade  consists  of  the  highest  subjects  of 
instruction  in  drawing,  from  copies,  casts,  nature,  and 
original  design,  painting,  modelling,  architecture,  draw- 
ing and  design,  and  mechanical  and  machine  drawing 
from  copies  and  models,  which  form  the  studies  in  schools 
of  art ; and  the  masters  or  mistresses  of  such  schools  have 
to  become  certificated  in  this  grade  before  the  Govern- 
ment recognizes  them  as  art  masters  or  mistresses.  The 
drawings  annually  produced  in  schools  of  art,  not  of 
the  second  grade  as  before  described,  are  of  the  third 
grade,  and  are  every  year  sent  to  London  for  exami- 
nation, rewards,  and  exhibition.  The  stages  of  study 
are  twenty-three  in  number,  and  are  printed  in  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  South  Keusington  School:  the  drawings, 
models,  &c.,  being  divided  into  two  groups,  — elementary 


22. 


MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OE  TECHNOLOGY. 


HALF  STORY  FLOOR. 


A,  B,  & C.  Architectural  Museum  and  Library. 

D.  Natural  History  Lecture  Room. 

E.  Reading  Room. 

I1’  & G.  Professors’  Studies. 


THtKD  STORY  FLOOR. 


A,  B,  C,  Dj  & E.  Drawing  Rooms. 

F.  Mechanical  Engineering  Lecture  Room. 

G.  Geometry  Lecture  Room. 

H.  Model  Room. 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  135 


and  advanced ; the  latter  being  selected  from  the  best 
works  of  all  the  schools  of  art,  and  examined  together 
in  what  is  termed  the  National  Competition. 

The  teachers’  certificates  in  this  group  are  awarded 
after  examination  in  London  only,  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary, at  the  close  of  the  winter  session  of  the  train- 
ing-school. Full  information  concerning  these  profes- 
sional examinations  is  given  in  the  programme  of  the 
South  Kensington  School ; and  the  examination-papers 
for  the  first  certificate  of  third  grade,  for  1868,  are 
printed  also  in  the  Appendix. 

Having  given  a sketch  of  the  grades  of  study,  I pro- 
pose to  notice  the  effects  of  this  system  in  operation. 

The  foundation  of  the  system  is  outline  drawing  with 
pencil ; and,  until  the  pupil  gets  over  this  stage,  there  is 
no  advancement.  From  the  first  efforts  in  the  National 
Schools  to  the  elementary  work  in  schools  of  art,  all  is 
outline  ; and  that  is  a net  through  which  every  pupil 
must  pass.  In  this  the  method  differs  utterly  from  the 
French  ; which,  as  the  description  of  M.  Lequien’s  school 
shows,  ignores  outline  drawing  altogether,  and  looks  on 
pencil-work  as  inferior  in  all  ways  to  crayon  and  char- 
coal. Having  passed  this  introduction,  the  subsequent 
practice  is  not  unlike  the  French  plan;  only  that,  as  a 
rule,  shading  is  done  with  the  point  of  the  chalk,  and  no 
rubbing  or  stumping  is  permitted  until  the  student  has 
attained  to  considerable  skill  in  point- work.  Painting 
in  all  stages  is  also  taught ; and,  disregarding  the  se- 
quence of  the  stages  in  numerical  order,  studjr  in  light 
and  shade  in  monochrome,  sepia,  or  neutral  tint  is  very 
soon  among  the  vehicles  used  by  the  young  student. 
Drawing  in  outline  of  flowers  and  foliage,  and  botanical 
analysis  of  plants,  with  original  elementary  design,  are 
generally  resorted  to,  and  form  some  of  the  most  agree- 
able subjects  of  study. 


1C6 


ART  EDUCATION 


As  a scheme  of  art  education,  comprehending  all  the 
necessities,  whether  of  the  child,  the  artisan,  or  the  art 
student,  the  English  system  must  be  acknowledged  to  be 
more  thoroughly,  adapted  to  the  general  wants  of  all 
grades  of  society  than  an)r  other,  because  it  has  more 
scope,  is  progressive  in  its  grades  of  instruction,  and  pro- 
vides what  no  other  national  system  does  so  thoroughly 
for  the  professional  education  and  examination  of  the  art 
masters  who  are  to  carry  it  out.  The  severity  which 
used  to  characterize  its  early  stages,  and  against  which, 
in  times  past,  1 have  waged  a not  wholly  unsuccessful 
war,  is  now  passing  away,  if  it  has  not  entirely  disap- 
peared. All  the  freedom  of  stump  and  leather  work, 
and  the  boldness  of  large  practice,  are  both  allowed  and 
encouraged  in  the  English  schools,  when  once  the  out- 
line stage  is  passed,  and  the  student  can  use  the  crayon 
point  fairly.  But  a radical  difference  is  still  maintained 
between  the  art  education  of  the  child  in  the  common 
schools,  and  the  youth  or  adult  in  the  schools  of  art, — 
and  wisely  so,  as  all  who  have  had  great  experience  in 
both  fields  of  education  will  allow  to  be  necessary. 

Compared  with  the  French  plan,  the  English  may  be 
said  to  begin  earlier  with  its  pupils,  and  go  on  longer, 
and  thus  is  necessarily  a more  extended  course ; but  in 
its  gradation  of  exercises  and  comprehension  of  prac- 
tice with  all  mediums,  and  upon  a wide  variety  of  sub- 
jects, the  latter  seems  to  me  more  systematic  and  educa- 
tional in  its  arrangement  than  the  former. 

I have  spoken  more  fully  on  the  scheme  of  art  edu- 
cation originating  in  England  than  I should  have  done 
otherwise,  because  its  recent  success,  both  in  common- 
school  instruction,  and  influence  upon  manufacturing 
industry,  has  drawn  the  attention  of  the  whole  world 
to  its  organization  and  system : and  also  because  I 
have  noticed  that  theorists,  who  know  little  or  nothing 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  137 

of  either  plan  practically,  are  in  the  habit  of  comparing 
French  and  English  methods  to  the  great  disadvantage 
of  the  latter.  Now,  I entirely  disagree  with  that  view, 
and  hope  that  I can  judge  impartially  of  the  two,  not 
blinded  by  national  prejudice,  but  as  a practical  educa- 
tor, having  already  written,  perhaps,  more  in  flavor  of 
French  art  education  than  any  other  Englishman  ; and  I 
contend,  that,  in  this  subject,  as  in  all  others,  before  any 
person  is  competent  to  discriminate  the  good  points  of 
both  systems,  he  must  be  familiar  with  both  in  the  class- 
room and  lecture-room,  — not  for  a day  or  a year,  but 
for  many  years,  and  see  the  effects  upon  many  students 
through  a whole  course  of  art  instruction.  This  has 
been  my  experience  ; and  the  opinions  formed  by  me  are 
based  upon  that  experience.  When  I say  also,  that  a 
better  scheme  than  either  can,  I believe,  be  developed  in 
this  country,  it  will  be  seen,  that,  whilst  I -have  more 
faith  in  the  English  than  the  French  system,  I ^ope  the 
American  will  be  the  best  of  them  all.  Still,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  we  are  in  this  country  only  buckling  on 
our  art  armor,  and  must  not  boast  as  those  who  are 
taking  it  off. 

The  German  industrial  art  schools,  which  in  the  form 
either  of  important  institutions,  like  that  at  Nuremberg, 
or  as  drawing-classes  in  the  common  schools,  are  now 
becoming  as  general  as  other  agencies  for  instruction, 
have  much  the  same  method  of  study  as  the  English, 
though  they  all  require  larger  and  bolder  practice  of 
outline  drawing,  and  considerably  less  of  it. 

The  system  makes  clearness  of  line,  balanpe  of  form, 
and  cleanliness  of  Workmanship  in  the  use  of  the  me- 
dium, a required  accomplishment  in  all  pupils  before 
advancing  to  more  difficult  studies.  The  sort  of  outline 
practised  is  very  various  as  to  thickness  of  line,  sketchy 


138 


ART  EDUCATION. 


and  effective,  and  suggestive  of  light  and  shade  and 
roundness,  — a pleasant  medium  between  the  hardness 
and  wiriness  of  English  and  utter  absence  of  French 
outline  practice.  In  the  study  of  light  and  shade,  which 
is  begun  at  a very  earlv  stage  from  casts,  the  processes 
used  are  combinations  both  of  point  and  stump  work ; 
but  the  exercises  are  more  carefully  wrought,  with 
greater  attention  to  workmanship,  than  in  French  stump 
drawings.  A very  complete  collection  of  examples  of 
study  is  used  in  the  German  schools,  both  of  flat  copies 
and  casts,  and,  being  accessible  and  cheap,  may  account 
for  the  great  popularity  of  art  study,  and  some  of  its 
excellence. 

The  best  German  exhibit  of  art  schools  in  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1807  was  that  from  Wurtemberg.  Whilst 
examining  this  collection,  I met  and  conversed  with  one 
of  the  royal  commissioners  of  the  kingdom,  — Dr.  Stein- 
berg, — who  told  me,  that,  though  the  population  of  Wur- 
temberg was  only  about  two  millions,  they  had  sixty-four 
successful  schools  of  art  in  full  operation  ; the  Govern- 
ment appointing  and  paying  the  teachers,  and  the  local 
authorities  in  each  town’ or  village  provided  the  places 
for  study. 

In  drawing  from  the  cast,  a set  of  conventional  orna- 
mental casts  is  used  for  the  first  exercises  which  appear 
to  me  very  objectionable,  being  made  for  the  purpose  of 
displaying  flat  planes  of  light  and  shade,  cutting  harshly 
from  their  backgrounds,  without  modulation  of  line  or 
losing  of  distinction  in  parts.  This  is  intended  to  sim- 
plify the  first  exercises,  and  give  breadth  of  effect  in  light 
and  shade.  But  the  principle  of  such  relief  is  contrar}^ 
to  historical  precedent  in  architectural  ornament,  and  is 
totally  different  from  the  effects  seen  in  nature,  — two 
objections,  which,  in  my  opinion,  quite  overbalance  the 
apparent  advantages  of  breadth,  and  simplicity  of  sub- 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  139 


ject,  in  the  German  casts.  Great  use  is  also  made  of 
casts  from  nature  in  study  of  light  and  shade  ; and 
these  are  so  excellent,  that  one  cannot  help  wondering 
why  the  wooden-looking  ornamental  casts  are  not  dis- 
pensed with,  and  casts  of  historical  ornament  and  natural 
foliage  and  figures  entirely  relied  upon. 

The  schools  are  particularly  successful  in  the  scien- 
tific branches  of  art  education,  plane  and  solid  geome- 
try,  perspective  and  projection  ; and  this  study  is  pursued 
to  the  extent  of  making  models  to  illustrate  problems 
worked  on  paper.  The  latter  feature  seems  peculiar 
to  the  German  art  schools,  though  it  is  practised  in  the 
French  scientific  ones,  and  it  is  wholly  unknown  in 
England. 

The  good  manifestly  resulting  from  such  a thorough 
analysis  of  form  as  must  arise  from  its  study,  both  in 
the  solid  and  on  a plane  surface,  would  point  this  out 
as  a feature  to  be  adopted  in  American  schools  of  the 
future.  Given  the  power  of  drawing  an  object,  the 
student  would  make  it  better  than  if  he  could  not  draw 
it ; and,  given  the  exercise  of  making  it,  he  ought  to 
know  it  better,  and  draw  it  more  truly,  than  if  his 
acquaintance  with  the  subject  was  in  making  it  only. 

The  industrial  school  at  Nuremberg  has  a reputation 
for  thoroughness  not  exceeded  by  that  of  any  other 
German  school ; and  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  curric- 
ulum make  it  a representative  institution.  It  is  more 
professional  in  character  than  ordinary  art  schools, 
because  of  the  high  standard  of  instruction  to  be  ob- 
tained in  its  classes  ; but  there  is  essentially  practical  and 
industrial  work  done  in  it.  The  plan  of  securing  one- 
third  of  the  students’  works  for  the  use  of  the  school ; 
copying  the  best  works  by  photography  ; the  taking  of 
contract's  for  art  workmanship,  to  be  wrought  by  the 
students ; teaching  of  casting  for  the  purposes  of  repro- 


140 


ART  EDUCATION. 


duction,  and  the  making  of  working  drawings  for  actual 
use,  — are  all  excellent  features,  suggestive  to  us  here,  as 
soon  as  we  can  get  men  capable  of  managing  such  prac- 
tical and  valuable  agencies.  It  is  a feature  characteris- 
tic of  the  German  sj’stem  in  its  best  schools,  and  par- 
tially  practised  at  South  Kensington  in  wood-engraving 
and  making  of  terra-cotta,  which  is  worthy  of  serious 
consideration  in  any  state  school  that  may  be  estab- 
lished in  this  country.  The  consciousness  in  a student, 
that  his  work,  if  good  enough,  will  be  made  use  of  in  a 
book  or  a building,  stimulates  him  to  a successful  effort ; 
and  the  test  of  practical  usefulness  is  an  excellent 
standard  by  which  to  judge  his  productions.  Thus  an 
advanced  class-room  is  a middle  step  between  the  school 
and  the  workshop,  and  is  a means  of  directing  the  first 
exercises  in  design  upon  sound  principles,  the  work 
being  subjected  in  its  progress  to  just  criticism.  This 
feature  seems  to  me  to  be  a combination  of  the  good 
parts  of  the  academy  and  atelier  methods.  Students 
wholly  educated  in  the  ateliers  of  professional  artists 
lose  the  healthy  competition  of  the  class-room  ; and 
those  who  take  no  part  in  the  production  of  works 
which  are  to  be  sold,  frequently  have  to  mourn  their 
ignorance  of  the  practical  requirements  in  their  profes- 
sions. 

The  thoroughness  which  is  characteristic  of  German 
education  generally  is  displayed  also  in  their  methods 
if  art  study.  The  theoretical  work  is  illustrated  by  the 
oest  specimens  of  its  application  ; and  a student  who  is 
engaged  in  working  out  a project  of  his  own  is  con- 
stantly referred  to  the  successful  efforts  of  others,  who 
uive  done  similar  things  before,  — not  in  vague  state- 
ments, but  by  examination  and  analysis  of  the  objects 
themselves.  The  museum  and  picture-gallery,  how- 
ever rnodest  in  proportion,  are  adjuncts  of  the  class- 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  141 


room ; and  book-work  is  by  no  means  overlooked.  It 
will  be  seen,  by  reference  to  the  Nuremberg  programme, 
that  a class  of  students  called  listeners  is  provided  for, 
who  have  to  pay  three  times  as  much  for  the  privilege 
of  looking  on  as  the  ordinary  students  have  for  their 
working  course.  That  meets  a want  in  most  countries ; 
for  there  are  those  everywhere  who  would  like  to  go 
through  the  form  of  art  study  if  it  were  not  for  the 
labor  entailed. 

Each  of  these  three  systems  — the  French,  English, 
and  German  — has  specially  good  points  in  it ; and  a 
catholic  regard  for  the  excellent  will  recognize  the  good 
in  all,  without  feeling  it  necessary  to  undervalue  any 
one.  A man’s  mind  must  be  very  narrow  in  its  area, 
if  there  is  room  in  it  only  for  the  appreciation  of  one 
good  thing ; and  those  who  cannot  admire  the  good 
features  in  very  opposite  methods,  rather  than  condemn- 
ing wholesale  all  schemes  of  instruction  which  may 
have  deficiencies,  have  certainly  got  much  yet  to  learn. 
Any  system,  to  be  righteous  and  practical,  ought  to  be 
elastic  enough  to  embrace  every  new  process  that  expe- 
rience may  perfect,  let  it  come  from  whence  it  may  ; 
and  if  it  is  otherwise,  basing  its  own  methods  on  the 
theory  that  they  are  already  perfect,  and  that  other 
methods  wherein  they  differ  are  imperfect,  then  such 
a system  may  succeed  in  putting  strait-jackets  on  the 
bodies  and  souls  of  its  students,  but  will  never  make 
original  workers  of  them.  In  the  adaptation  of  any 
scheme  of  instruction  for  the  development  of  skill  in 
individual  cases,  it  ought  to  be  possible,  and  may  some- 
times be  necessary,  to  turn  the  whole  scheme  upside 
down,  beginning  at  the  end,  or  ending  at  the  beginning, 
if  needs  be,  any  laws  or  formulae  to  the  contrary  not- 
withstanding ; and  if  a system  won’t  stand  such  a strain 
as  that,  it  is  worse  than  useless,  — a dead-weight  of  red- 


142 


ART  EDUCATION. 


tape  and  pedagogism.  It  seems  to  me  that  view  is  per- 
fectly consistent  with  belief  in  the  mind  of  an}'-  one 
man,  that  a certain  process  is  the  best,  on  the  whole, 
for  average  powers,  and  that  he  is  justified  in  working 
upon  his  conviction  generally ; but  every  educationist 
knows  how  various  are  the  requirements  and  talents  of 
human  beings,  and  how  that,  if  all  be  treated  exactly 
alike,  without  making  allowances  for  difference  of  char- 
acter, people  may  be  destroyed  as  well  as  saved,  “ ac- 
cording to  law,”  — or  by  any  law,  which,  like  that  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians,  “ altereth  not.” 

I should  like  to  see  a school  of  art  big  enough  and 
catholic  enough  to  have  class-rooms  in  it  conducted 
upon  each  of  these  three  distinct  plans,  and  adminis- 
tered by  the  best  masters  that  could  be  found  from 
France,  England,  and  Germany,  or  by  Americans,  whose 
experience  in  the  several  methods  would  enable  them 
to  work  the  schemes  successfully,  and  that  it  should  be 
a perfectly  voluntary  matter  into  which  of  the  prepar- 
atory schools  students  would  enter.  Then  if  it  be  true, 
as  some  believe,  that  a tree  may  be  known  by  its  fruits, 
we  might  come  to  fair  conclusions,  and  select  our  fruits 
according  to  our  ideal  of  excellence.  My  own  belief  is, 
that  they  would  be  found  to  be  like  the  three  porches 
or  gates  of  a temple,  giving  admission  by  different  ap- 
proaches to  the  same  tabernacle,  and  that  the  disciples 
would  be  finally  worshipping  at  one  altar,  — that  of  artis- 
tic perfection.  If  the  world  has  learned  any  thing  by 
experience,  it  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  bigotry 
and  immobility  are.  fatal  to  its  happiness,  and  that,  like 
the  Humpty-Dumpty  of  our  childhood,  people  who  pro- 
claim the  doctrine  of  their  own  infallibility  may  imme- 
diately afterwards  have  a very  great  fall  indeed.  From 
such  a fall,  wise  men  will  guard  themselves  by  not 


23. 


“WORCESTER  COUNTY  FREE  INSTITUTE. 


5PXAH.QF.  SECOND  ST  CRY 


FLAN  OF  THIRD  STORY 


METHODS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART  STUDY.  143 


climbing  to  the  giddy  heights  of  infallibility ; and  then 
they  will  not  need  the  futile  help  of  “ all  the  king’s 
horses,  and  all  the  king’s  men  ” to  set  them,  humiliated 
and  self-defiled,  “ on  the  wall  again.” 


CHAPTER  Y. 


CONDUCT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 
N a country  like  America,  where  there  is  so  excel- 


lent a system  of  common-school  education,  it  will 
not  be  long  before  a technical  development  of  it  in  any 
direction  will  be  organized  and  administered  with  the 
skill  alread}r  displayed  in  the  general  subject.  After  a 
few  years  of  experience,  there  will  be  little  to  learn  from 
other  countries  concerning  their  systems  of  art  educa- 
tion ; for  it  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  that,  in  the 
progress  of  events,  the  practical  genius  for  educational 
organization  which  distinguishes  the  people  of  America 
will  be  equally  discernible  in  the  adaptation  of  art  and 
science  to  the  educational  wants  of  this  country.  I do 
not,  therefore,  propose  to  do  more  than  suggest  what 
appears  to  me  a practical  beginning  in  the  conduct  and 
management  of  schools  of  art,  conscious  that  probably, 
to  suit  the  circumstances  of  a new  country,  original 
features  of  organization  will  be  necessary,  and  antici- 
pate a success  in  the  conduct  of  such  schools  that  will 
place  them  beyond  the  needs  of  either  advice  or  criti- 


I have,  however,  been  made  very  thoroughly  aware 
of  the  necessity  for  some  suggestions  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  introduction  of  art  study  generally  in  this 
country,  by  observing  the  inadequate  provision  for  it  in 


cism. 


144 


145 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 

cities,  where,  apparently  to  the  promoters,  they  had 
done  all  that  was  necessary  to  found  a school  of  art ; 
where  an  empty  room,  with  seats  and  a blackboard  in  it, 
and  a draughtsman  from  the  nearest  foundry  or  factory 
to  teach  his  specialty,  seemed  to  be  all  that  was  required 
to  establish  industrial  art  education.  This  way  of  look- 
ing at  the  subject  is  essentially  unpractical ; and  I have 
seen  splendid  classes,  such  as  a great  teacher  would  be 
delighted  to  instruct,  wasting  their  time  in  studying 
technical  subjects  of  drawing  which  would  never  be 
of  use  to  them,  because  there  was  no  opportunity  given 
them  of  studying  their  own  individual  subjects,-  or 
because  the  teacher  was  only  skilled  in  one  branch 
of  drawing,  which  he  taught  of  necessity  indiscrim- 
inately to  all.  If  the  students  in  a class  or  school  rep- 
resent twenty  different  kinds  of  industries,  requiring 
special  developments  of  art  skill,  and  a teacher  be 
employed  who  is  only  acquainted  with  one  of  these, 
and  has  to  assist  him  neither  subordinate  teachers  nor 
examples  of  various  art  subjects  competent  to  teach  on 
or  bearing  upon  the  other  nineteen  subjects,  he  will 
only  be  able  to  give  industrial  education  to  one  of  the 
twenty  classes  of  industries  requiring  art  instruction ; 
and  the  rest  will  possibly  get  knowledge  of  little  use  to 
them : to  them  it  will  be  purely  an  amusement  or  an 
accomplishment,  if  they  do  not  retire  altogether  from  the 
classes  as  being  of  no  practical  value  to  them.  The  first 
necessity,  then,  is,  that  a school  shall  be  properly  fitted 
and  furnished  with  the  required  implements  of  art  study, 
and  that  the  teachers  shall  be  thoroughly  well  able  to 
teach  the  subjects  in  which  the  school  professes  to  give 
instruction,  and  the  curriculum  be  limited  to  those. 
Then  there  can  be  no  disappointment  arising  from  a 
student,  who  wants  to  learn  one  subject,  being  forced  to 
learn  another  : if  his  subject  be  down  on  the  programme, 


146 


ART  EDUCATION. 


it  will  be  taught ; and,  if  not,  he  must  seek  instruction 
somewhere  else. 

The  points  to  consider  in  the  conduct  of  a school  of 
art  are : 1.  The  Subjects  of  Instruction.  2.  Regula- 
tions concerning  Teachers.  3.  Regulations  concern- 
ing Students. 


I.  — THE  SUBJECTS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

These  may  be  grouped  under  the  two  distinct  head- 
ings, 1 general,  2 technical : of  which  the  first  com- 
prises the  common  subjects  required  to  be  taught  as  the 
basis  of  all  art  instruction,  and  also  the  study  of  general 
principles  of  art  common  to  every  specialty,  such  as 
drawing,  composition,  light  and  shade,  and  principles 
of  design  ; the  second,  or  technical  subjects,  will  include 
all  those  advanced  studies  in  which  the  knowledge 
gained  in  the  general  course  is  applied  to  special  sub- 
jects, such  as  modelling,  carving  in  wood  and  stone, 
drawing  on  wood  and  stone,  and  wood-engraving,  model- 
making, ship-draughting,  etching,  designing  for  manu- 
factures, painting,  architectural  and  machine  drawing. 
Thus  we  might  substitute  the  words  elementary  for 
general,  and  advanced  for  technical  subjects,  without 
changing  the  grouping  or  order  of  the  instruction.  It  is 
quite  likely  that  many  schools  will  only  at  first  under- 
take to  give  instruction  in  the  general  subjects,  from  a 
conviction  that  it  would  be  the  most  useful  course, 
avoiding  thereby  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  teachers 
of  the  advanced  subjects.  It  would  be  the  wisest  to 
secure  this  elementary  instruction  at  once,  rather  than 
to  wait  for  the  means  of  obtaining  a school  which  should 
be  complete  in  both  general  and  technical  studies ; for 
the  latter  may  grow  out  of  success  in  the  former,  as  a 
result  of  wedding  art  to  industry.  Provision  might, 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


147 


however,  very  usefully  be  made  in  a new  school  for 
opportunities  in  the  shape  of  rooms  and  materials  for 
some  of  the  technical  subjects,  so  that  skilled  workmen 
might  be  able  to  practise  the  artistic  rendering  of  their 
work,  even  if  they  received  no  special  instruction  in 
it,  under  the  general  criticism  of  the  principal  of  the 
school.  Rooms  of  this  character  are  provided  in  the 
design  by  Messrs.  Sturgis  & Brigham,  the  basement 
giving  ample  accommodation  for  studios  for  every  tech- 
nical study. 

In  the  arrangement  of  study  for  the  general  or  ele- 
mentary subjects,  the  course  should  be  as  varied  as 
possible,  so  that  every  student  may  have  the  opportu- 
nity of  discovering  in  what  his  strength  lies,  and  of 
strengthening  his  weak  points.  Short  lessons,  frequently 
repeated,  each  containing  a clear  illustration  of  some 
principle  of  art  or  mode  of  working,  are  much  better 
than  a long,  monotonous  study  of  one  subject  only. 
Some  students  can  be  reached  through  their  under- 
standing, and  some  through  their  taste  ; and  it  will  be 
found  generally,  that  one  of  these  characteristics  will  be 
developed  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  other,  especially 
if  the  student  has  worked  much  by  himself.  Varying 
the  subjects  of  instruction,  so  as  to  include  the  more 
artistic  as  well  as  the  scientific  phases  of  study,  will 
tend  to  equalize  these  two  faculties  of  taste  and  under- 
standing, besides  broadening  the  area  of  the  student’s 
knowledge.  Two  exercises  should  be  practised  from 
the  first,  — namely,  drawing  from  memory,  and  time- 
drawing ; and  no  week  ought  to  be  allowed  to  pass  with- 
out a definite  proportion  of  time  being  given  to  each,  the 
teacher  adapting  both  time  and  subject  to  the  attain- 
ments and  opportunities  of  the  student.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  secure,  that  drawing  be  regarded  as  a lan- 
guage, to  be  used  when  called  for,  and  with  sufficient 


148 


ART  EDUCATION. 


rapidity  to  make  it  both  useful  and  intelligible,  like  a 
true  story  told  in  a few  words.  Infusion  of  variety  in 
subjects  might  also  be  supplemented  by  varying  the 
vehicle  used  in  drawing  ; thus  lead-pencil,  crayon-point, 
stump  and  leather  with  charcoal,  pen  and  ink,  sepia  or 
Indian  ink,  red  and  white  chalk,  selected  with  some 
reference  to  the  nature  of  the  exercise  being  performed, 
will  be  found  to  make  the  student  independent  of  mate- 
rial, and  check  any  disposition  to  one-sidedness,  either 
in  subject  or  vehicle.  This  should  be  done  just  as 
children  are  taught  in  school  many  more  subjects  than 
they  will  be  required  to  pursue  in  after  life,  in  order  to 
cultivate  and  educate  them.  It  is  probable  that  many 
subjects  or  vehicles  may  be  dropped  afterwards ; but 
then  those  will  have  been  discovered  and  practised 
which  eventually  will  absorb  all  the  faculties  of  each 
individual,  and  which  might  never  have  been  even 
touched  upon  in  a more  limited  field.  The  first  j-ear 
of  study  may  be  usefully  devoted  to  work  in  the  lecture- 
room,  to  acquire  knowledge  of  principles,  not  neces- 
sarily b}r  means  of  theoretical  lectures,  but  b}f  practice 
of  the  alphabet  of  drawing,  such  as  free-hand  ornamen- 
tal drawing,  geometrical  drawing,  parallel  and  radial  pro- 
jection, principles  of  light  and  shade,  — all  taught  from 
the  blackboard,  or  whiteboard,  by  a teacher  who  will 
be  required  to  be  thoroughly  master  both  of  his  subjects 
and  of  his  tongue,  or  he  will  never  be  master  of  his  pupils. 
The  various  subjects  should  be  divided  into  courses 
of  lectures,  a given  number  of  lectures  to  each,  and  an 
' examination  be  held  at  the  end  of  the  year’s  work,  to 
test  the  student’s  progress  and  the  master’s  efficiency. 
The  advancement  of  students  from  the  general  to  the 
technical  department  should  depend  upon  their  success 
at  these  annual  examinations,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
though  there  may  be  exceptional  instances  of  great 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


149 


ability  in  some  one  specialty  among  the  pnpils,  to  whom 
rules  ought  not  to  apply.  The  German  method  of  bring- 
ing students  face  to  face  with  the  exigencies  and  require- 
ments of  trade  and  manufacture,  by  letting  them  take 
commissions  to  be  worked  out  in  the  schools,  appears  to 
me  to  be  an  excellent  training ; for  it  seasons  theories 
with  practice,  and  gives  opportunities  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a determined  taste  in  any  practical  direction. 

Though  the  education  given  both  to  children  and 
adults  in  the  industrial  art  schools  is  free  (the  greatest 
example  which  America  sets  to  the  civilized  world),  and 
students  may,  therefore,  be  expected  to  dispense  with 
any  further  encouragements  to  study,  yet  I think  it  is 
a justifiable  course  to  offer  prizes  for  success  in  the  ex- 
aminations, if  they  are  of  a nature  to  assist  the  student 
towards  the  further  prosecution  of  art  study.  The 
action  of  the  English  science  and  art  department  in  this 
direction  is  worthy  of  consideration.  The  prizes  awarded 
for  excellence  in  the  work  done  at  examinations  are  in 
the  shape  of  helps  to  future  study.  Thus  a student 
succeeding  in 'free-hand  outline  drawing  of  ornament  or 
models  can  choose  a box  of  crayons  or  a color-box,  or 
works  on  geometry  and  perspective,  as  his  prize  ; and  the 
same  principle  holds  good  in  all  the  examinations.  The 
cost  of  these  marks  of  approval  and  encouragements  to 
the  students  is  a very  trifling  matter  to  the  State  ; but 
the  influence  of  this  expenditure  can  be  definitely  traced 
in  the  popularity  and  general  prosecution  of  art  study. 
The  mere  possession  of  the  implements  of  study  will 
often  act  as  an  incentive  to  take  it  up  ; and,  considering 
how  much  the  interests  of  society  are  involved  in  mak- 
ing of  its  youth  students  and  producers,  1 regard  all 
such  public  investments  for  the  study  of  art  as  seed 
sown  in  a fruitful  soil,  which  will  bear  fruit  a hundred 
or  a thousand  fold. 


150 


ART  EDUCATION. 


The  grading  of  drawing,  though  a matter  of  detail, 
is  not  without  its  influence  upon  systematic  study.  The 
three  distinctions  which  can  be  made  in  it,  are  1st,  the 
drawing  of  children  in  day  schools  ; 2d,  the  drawing  of 
adult  students  in  schools  of  art  or  industrial  -drawing- 
classes ; 3d,  professional  work  either  of  art  masters  or 
artists.  The  grades  pursued  in  schools  of  art  will,  there- 
fore, be  the  second  and  third  grades ; for  every  school 
should  be  broad  enough  both  to  instruct  the  artisan  and 
educate  the  artist  and  art  master.  The  one  feature 
which  ought  to  be  added  to  the  plan  of  art  education  as 
pursued  in  most  European  countries  is  that  of  technical 
study,  to  bring  it  into  immediate  contact  with  industry. 
The  absence  of  this  has  been  the  weakness  of  systems 
where  it  has  been  ignored  ; and  any  new  scheme  should 
include  it  as  of  vital  importance. 

In  some  American  cities,  the  school-boards  provide 
the  students  of  industrial  drawing-classes  with  the  more 
costl}r  implements  of  study,  as  well  as  free  instruction  ; 
and  that  seems  to  me  to  be  a wise  and  generous  action. 
The  cost  of  such,  at  that  particular  time  in  a young 
man's  or  woman’s  life  when  they  would  be  most 
useful  and  required,  might  prevent  the  student  from 
engaging  on  the  study  of  drawing,  which  is  surely  to  be 
avoided  if  practicable.  Thus  the  city  of  Boston  pro- 
vides drawing-boards,  T and  set  squares,  mathematical 
instruments,  slabs  for  ink  and  color,  ink  and  brushes,  all 
free  for  the  student’s  use ; and  the  same  with  proper 
care  and  custody  will  last  for  many  years.  In  addition 
to  these,  it  would  be  well  that  the  school-committees  pro- 
vide canvas  covers  for  drawing-boards,  modelling-cla3q 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  tools  for  casting  ; box-wood  blocks 
for  drawing  and  engraving  on  wood ; wood  and  stone 
for  carving  ; copperplates  for  etching ; lithographic  stones 
for  drawing  upon  ; and  the  actual  materials  used  for  any 


24. 


BOSTON  ART  MUSEUM.  GROUND  FLOOR. 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


151 


technical  process  carried  on  in  the  school.  The  students 
might  be  expected  to  furnish  themselves  with  all  the 
tools  or  implements  used,  which  are  not  included  in  the 
above  list.  Thus  pencils,  crayons,  paper,  drawing-pins, 
modelling-tools,  gravers,  carving-tools,  colors,  brushes, 
and  etching-tools  should  all  be  purchased  by  the  pupils, 
though  it  might  be  of  convenience  if  those  for  which 
there  was  a continual  demand  were  kept  in  stock  by 
the  janitor  at  his  office  in  the  school,  and  be  sold  to 
the  students  at  cost  price,  — a great  advantage  to  them. 
If  a city  could  afford  to  be  thoroughly  generous,  it  might, 
without  any  serious  addition  to  the  whole  cost  of  main- 
taining a school  of  art,  supply  the  students  with  every 
thing  required  by  them,  as  freely  as  it  gives  them  edu- 
cation ; but  if  for  economical  reasons,  or  from  a convic- 
tion that  the  students  themselves  should  make  some  sac- 
rifice in  order  to  encourage  them  to  value  the  education 
they  receive,  the  burden  is  shared,  the  division  between 
what  is  found  for  them  gratuitously  and  what  they  pro- 
vide for  themselves  may  be  taken  as  indicated  above. 

n.  — REGULATIONS  CONCERNING  TEACHERS. 

The  position  of  the  principal  of  a school  of  art  should 
be  equivalent  to  that  of  the  master  of  a school  district, 
where  he  is  held  responsible  for  the  working,  not  only 
of  his  grammar-school,  but  also  of  the  primary  schools  in 
the  district ; the  difference  being,  that  the  principal  of 
the  art  school  should  be  the  city  inspector  or  superin- 
tendent of  drawing  in  the  public  schools,  taught  by 
either  special  or  regular  teachers. 

[Whilst  upon  the  subject  of  teachers,  I would  like  to 
state  that  the  employment  of  special  teachers  to  teach 
elementary  drawing  in  the  public  schools  is  in  my  opin- 
ion an  unmitigated  evil.  The  effect  upon  the  children 
is  to  make  them  regard  drawing  as  so  difficult  that  even 


152 


ART  EDUCATION. 


their  own  teachers  cannot  learn  it ; and  jet  they  see 
with  wonder  that  they  are  expected  to  learn  what  their 
own  teachers  are  excused  from.  This  destroys  the  influ- 
ence, and  puts  entirely  in  a false  position  the  whole 
subject  of  drawing.  When  a special  teacher  of  draw- 
ing be  employed,  it  should  be  in  the  capacity  of  super- 
intendent, and  to  give  instruction  to  the  regular  teach- 
ers until  they  become  qualified,  and  not  as  a direct 
teacher  of  children  in  the  public  schools.] 

In  every  city,  there  will  in  due  time  be  a demand  for 
a school  of  art ; and  it  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a centre 
from  which  the  art  education  of  the  district  should  ema- 
nate. The  same  law  of  Massachusetts  which  requires 
drawing  to  be  taught  in  the  common  schools  demands 
also  that  it  shall  be  taught  in  free  evening  classes  ; and 
that  suggests  the  practical  unit}'  of  the  want  which  is 
thus  provided  for.  If  a teacher  of  ability  and  reputa- 
tion be  secured  for  the  management  of  the  art  school,  no 
one  can  be  better  fitted  to  manage  the  drawing  in  the 
common  schools  ; and  the  double  duty  will  enable  school 
committees  to  offer  such  an  inducement  as  salary  that  the 
best  men  in  the  profession  of  art  rnav  be  commanded. 
II is  duty  in  the  art  school  will  be  to  give  instruction 
generally  to  all  the  advanced  students,  and  occasional 
lectures  upon  general  art  topics  ; to  see  that  the  teach- 
ers of  the  various  classes  are  giving  instruction  upon  the 
principles  and  plan  adopted  throughout  the  school,  and 
be  responsible  to  the  committee  for  the  conduct  and 
management  of  the  whole  school.  To  give  him  author- 
ity to  carry  out  the  scheme,  he  should  be  consulted  upon 
the  appointment  of  all  subordinate  teachers,  and  be  held 
responsible  for  examining  their  professional  qualifica- 
tions, and  reporting  on  them,  for  the  guidance  of  the 
committee  in  making  appointments.  In  the  day  schools, 
his  work  would  be  that  of  superintendent  and  examiner, 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


153 


directing  the  teachers,  and  holding  periodical  examina- 
tions of  the  pupils.  The  direct  inspection  of  the  classes 
in  each  school  may  be  safely  intrusted  to  his  assistants 
in  the  art  schools,  who  would  inspect  and  report  to  him  ; 
but  for  their  work,  as  well  as  his  own,  he  should  be 
responsible  to  the  committee. 

The  subordinate  teachers  required  in  an  art  school 
would  be,  (1),  a second  master,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes 
called,  a deputy  head-master,  or  sub-principal,  whose 
duties  in  the  school  are  to  represent  the  head-master  in 
his  absence,  and  manage  the  elementary  part  of  the  class- 
work,  such  as  the  lecture-room  and  lower  classes,  give 
class-lectures,  and  be  custodian  of  the  school  generally  ; 
(2),  teachers  for  each  distinct  subject,  as,  for  instance, 
free-hand  drawing  from  copies  and  casts,  mechanical  and 
architectural  drawing,  modelling,  and  casting  ; teachers 
for  technical  subjects,  as  ship-draughting,  wood-engrav- 
ing, porcelain-painting,  carving,  &c.  In  addition  to  this, 
there  should  be  a monitor  appointed  for  each  class-room 
from  among  the  students  who  are  preparing  to  become 
teachers,  whose  duties  would  be  to  occasionally  assist 
the  teacher,  keep  the  attendance  of  the  classes,  and  help 
the  students  in  any  way  that  may  be  desirable.  In  the 
French  schools,  the  students  themselves  elect  their  moni- 
tors ; and  I am  not  sure  that  it  is  not  a good  arrangement. 
They  are  not  paid  for  their  work,  but  receive  as  compen- 
sation a professional  education  from  the  principal  and 
teachers  whom  they  assist.  In  large  cities,  consisting 
of  wide-spread  districts,  it  is  well  to  have  elementary 
drawing-classes,  taught  by  means  of  class-lectures  from 
the  blackboard,  in  all  the  distinct  localities  which  are 
at  a distance  from  the  central  art  school,  held  in  the 
high  schools  or  grammar  schools  of  each  district ; and 
the  teachers  of  these  might  be  appointed  from  among 
the  monitors,  spending  half  their  evenings  at  the  art 


154 


ART  EDUCATION. 


schools  and  half  in  teaching  district  classes.  Payment 
for  the  latter  work  would  enable  young  men  to  pursue 
their  studies,  who  might  be  otherwise  without  the  means 
of  doing  so ; and  thus  the  public  would  be  well  served, 
whilst  the  art  education  of  promising  young  men  would 
be  assisted.  That  is  an  arrangement  adopted  in  Loudon, 
and  has  resulted  admirably.  Even  to  those  students 
who  do  not  propose  to  become  teachers,  teaching  is  an 
excellent  discipline  ; and  I have  known  many  accom- 
plished artists  state,  that  they  never  saw  deeply  into  the 
bearings  of  some  art  subjects  until  they  were  brought 
by  teaching  into  contact  with  the  difficulties  others  felt 
about  them,  and  had  to  invent  explanations  which  would 
simplify  those  difficulties.  This  had  illumined  the  whole 
field  to  them,  more  than  their  own  studies  had  done. 

There  seems  an  objection  in  some  places  to  allow- 
ing the  teachers  of  the  day  schools  to  teach  evening 
classes,  supposing  that  all  their  energy  is  required  for 
their  work  in  the  daytime.  As  a rule,  this  may  be  true  ; 
and  with  regard  to  subjects  of  general  education,  when 
the  evening  work  is  a mere  monotonous  repetition  of 
that  carried  on  in  the  day,  I believe  it  is  a wise  course  to 
object  to  the  day-school  teachers  working  at  night.  But 
when  the  subjects  of  study  are  quite  different,  such  as 
is  the  case  with  art  or  scientific  instruction,  the  objec- 
tion does  not  altogether  hold  good.  It  is  a relief  to  the 
teacher  to  take  up  quite  a new  subject ; and,  if  he  is  a 
lover  of  it  and  skilled  in  its  practice,  then  he  is  proba- 
bly the  best  teacher  of  those  subjects  that  can  be  found. 
I have  serious  misgivings,  whether  in  such  subjects  it  is 
wisdom  to  cut  off  good  teachers  from  public  employ- 
ment at  night,  and  rely  only  upon  such  aid  as  can  be 
got  from  those  who  are  not  teachers  by  profession.  It 
will  be  many  years  in  this  counby  before  the  rare  com- 
bination of  the  artist  and  the  teacher  is  to  be  found  in 


SCHOOLS  OH  ALT. 


155 


sufficient  individuals  to  supply  the  demand  for  art  educa- 
tion. But  with  the  help  of  the  artistic  among  our  gen- 
eral school-teachers,  there  is  a fair  chance  of  supplying 
the  need  for  elementary  instruction  in  evening  classes 
at  once.  The  teaching  of  many  hundreds  of  night 
drawing-classes  as  well  as  science-classes  in  England 
is  carried  on  entirely  by  the  day-school  masters  ; and  the 
Government  highly  approves  of  their  employment.  The 
experience  of  other  countries  may  be  of  some  use  to  us 
here  in  considering  how  provision  is  to  be  made  for  the 
future  in  art  and  scientific  education. 

Not  that  the  demand  for  teachers  of  the  highest  order 
will  be  met  by  the  employment  of  day-school  teachers : 
the  only  course  capable  of  touching  that  want  will  be 
the  establishment  of  professional  training-schools,  such 
as  that  described  in  Chap.  I.,  — a remedy  already  suc- 
cessfully adopted  both  in  England  and  France.  A nor- 
mal art  school  carried  on  under  State  control,  with  a 
staff  of  professors  who  are  accomplished  educators  each 
in  some  special  field,  and  managed  by  the  official  repre- 
sentative professionally  of  the  State  board  of  education, 
will  meet  the  difficulty  in  every  State. 

in.  — REGULATIONS  CONCERNING  STUDENTS. 

When  drawing  has  been  in  full  operation  in  the  public 
schools  for  many  years,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  raise 
the  standard  of  admission  to  schools  of  art  very  con- 
siderably. At  present,  students  will  have  to  be  accepted 
who  have  received  no  instruction  in  drawing ; and  there- 
fore it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  describe  any  test  to  be 
applied  at  their  admission,  except  that  of  age.  Those 
who  attend  day  schools  ought  to  be  ineligible,  and  no 
one  be  admitted  under  fifteen  years  of  age.  In  a central 
art  school,  after  a while,  students  applying  for  admission 
should  be  subjected  to  an  examination  of  competency 


156 


ART  EDUCATION. 


in  elementary  drawing,  such  as  is  taught  in  the  day 
schools,  and,  failing  in  that,  be  refused  admission.  But 
for  some  time  to  come,  in  this  country,  an}7  student  who 
engages  to  attend  regularly  should  be  admitted  to  the 
elementary  courses  carried  on  in  the  lecture-room,  to  be 
passed  on  to  the  higher  classes  upon  examination  and 
success  in  the  subjects  taught  in  that  department.  Irreg- 
ularity or  unpunctuality  of  attendance,  except  in  case 
of  sickness  or  removal  from  the  neighborhood,  should 
be  sufficient  grounds  for  suspension  or  expulsion  of  the 
irregular  student.  It  will  be  better  that  the  time  of  the 
teachers  be  spent  upon  those  who  are  in  earnest  to  study, 
and  display  it  by  regularity  and  punctuality,  than  to 
waste  time  over  those  who  value  instruction  only  by  fits 
and  starts. 

The  time  usually  spent  in  study  per  week  differs  very 
much  in  different  countries,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  instruction  given.  In  the  night  drawing-classes, 
not  held  in  schools  of  art,  in  England,  one  night  per 
week,  of  two  hours,  is  the  time  allotted  ; in  the  art 
schools,  three  nights  per  week ; and  day  classes  vary  from 
two  to  five  lessons  per  week.  In  France,  the  municipal 
schools  are  open  at  least  five  nights  per  week  for  all 
students  ;•  and  some  of  the  classes  meet  oftener  than  that. 
The  majority  of  the  classes  already  established  in  Mas- 
sachusetts meet  two  nights  per  week  for  a lesson  of 
two  hours ; and,  until  the  work  in  them  becomes  more 
advanced,  perhaps  that  is  often  enough.  Home  work 
should  be  encouraged ; and,  if  the  student  desires  more 
practice  than  he  can  get  in  two  lessons  per  week,  he 
should  work  at  home,  bringing  his  drawings  occasion- 
ally for  criticism  and  for  direction  to  his  teacher. 

Students  should  be  informed,  on  their  first  admission 
to  a school  of  art,  that  all  injuries  to  the  school’s  prop- 
erty will  have  to  be  paid  for  by  those  causing  such  in- 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


157 


jury,  whether  it  be  by  accident  or  wilfulness.  This  is 
rendered  the  more  necessary,  because,  to  be  available  for 
study,  valuable  casts  and  works  of  art  are  constantly  at 
the  mercy  of  students,  who  may  by  carelessness  or  frivol- 
ty  inflict  great  injury  upon  those  works.  It  is  not  with- 
out value  in  the  moral  training  of  students,  to  teach 
them  to  respect  *and  even  reverence  the  beautiful  works 
of  art  of  past  ages ; and  the  responsibility  felt  for  their 
destruction  ought  to  be  at  least  equal  to  that  very  sim- 
ple commercial  law  which  makes  us  “ stand  by  our  acci- 
dents.” Art  study,  besides  having  a tangible  value  in 
its  relation  to  manufactures,  is  designed  to  promote  im- 
provement in  taste  ; and  the  principal  of  an  art  school, 
whilst  he  may  be  very  merciful  towards  artistic  imper- 
fections, cannot  be  too  severe  in  his  standard  of  good 
taste,  nor  can  he  apply  it  too  stringently  to  the  students 
under  his  charge.  In  the  presence  of  the  Elgin  marbles 
and  the  antique  statues,  unless  a student  feels  called 
upon  to  be  well-behaved,  as  much  so  as  if  he  were  in  a 
cathedral  or  at  a fashionable  assembly,  he  has  more  of 
the  savage  in  him  than  is  desirable,  and  will  have  to  be 
reduced  to  a condition  of  decency  by  rough  expedients  of 
the  street  or  the  market-place  before  any  hope  of  art 
work  can  be  entertained  concerning  him.  Nor  should  a 
student  ever  be  allowed  to  seacli  for  copies  or  handle  casts. 
He  is  not  in  a school  of  art  to  choose,  but  to  be  led  ; and 
what  direction  or  placing  of  examples  may  be  required 
will  be  best  left  in  the  hands  of  those  who  understand 
such  matters.  In  the  art  school,  as  in  the  common 
school,  the  first  condition  of  success  is  obedience  to 
orders  and  good  behavior ; and,  until  that  has  been 
complied  with,  it  is  as  ridiculous  to  expect  a refined 
perception  of  art  in  students  as  it  would  be  to  seek 
capacity  to  lead  in  a mutinous  soldier,  or  require  an 
Ojibbeway  Indian  to  wear  court  dress. 


158 


ART  EDUCATION. 


All  education  is  a process  of  reducing  tilings  to  law 
and  order  ; and  even  that  most  delicate  operation  of  dis- 
ciplining the  hand  and  eye,  training  the  understanding, 
and  developing  the  powers  of  the  imagination,  must  be 
conducted  with  due  regard  to  subordination  of  the  im- 
mature to  the  mature  mind,  or  art  study  will  become 
lawless  and  experimental.  Not  that  the  master  of  an 
art  school  should  be  a martinet,  but  that,  if  he  has  been 
appointed  to  lead,  he  should  do  so,  and  expect,  and 
command,  obedience  to  his  instructions.  I have  seen 
valuable  lives  wasted  from  laxity  on  the  part  of  teach- 
ers, who  allowed  conceit  or  youthful  frivolity  to  rule 
their  pupils,  rather  than  exercise  their  own  wills  to 
control  the  students  who  were  placed  under  them.  A 
sympathetic  feeling  should  always  exist  between  mas- 
ter and  student,  and  may  do  so  without  sacrificing  the 
authority  of  the  one  or  the  interests  of  the  other.  But 
it  must  not  be  a reciprocity  of  feeling  which  is  all  on 
one  side.  If  a master  displays  interest  in  his  pupil’s 
progress,  and  goes  out  of  his  way  to  think  over  and 
digest  what  should  be  done  to  advance  that  pupil’s 
studies,  the  least  that  the  said  pupil  can  do  in  return 
is  faithfully  to  comply  with  his  master’s  directions, 
whether  it  be  concerning  his  conduct  or  his  studies. 
This  is  the  more  important ; because  in  the  minds  of  those 
who  believe  they  have  the  gift  of  art  power,  there  is 
frequently  a disposition  to  regard  rules  as  superfluities, 
and  trust  to  intermittent  efforts  of  their  own  initiation, 
rather  than  buckle  down  to  the  hard  collar  work  of 
systematic  training.  That  is  occasioned  by  the  inex- 
perience and  impetuosity  of  }Touth,  which  leads  its  vic- 
tims, if  uncontrolled,  into  ill-regulated  and  non-se- 
quential  habits  of  study,  often  ending  in  a narrow 
mannerism  or  some  contracted  groove  of  subject,  inca- 
pable of  development.  The  evil  of  very  large  art 


BOSTON  ART  MUSEUM.  SECOND  FLOOR. 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


159 


schools  is,  that  the  master  can  hardly  know  and  take 
individual  interest  in  each  of  his  students  ; and  thus 
many  who  would  become  strong  men  by  training  are 
left  to  wander  about  in  search  of  the  best  courses  to 
pursue,  coming  at  last  to  regard  their  own  crude  notions 
as  their  only  guide.  Nothing  in  after  life  can  ever  com- 
pensate for  this  absence  of  early  training  under  a wise 
master  ; and  for  one  student  whose  powers  may  be 
cramped  by  the  strict  regulations  of  a school,  perhaps 
fifty  are  mined  by  the  want  of  sufficient  discipline.  It 
is  quite  true  that  the  capacities  of  students  are  so  varied 
that  even  the  same  course  of  study  will  produce  entirely 
different  results  in  individuals  ; and  it  is  for  the  master  to 
discover  by  his  observation  and  close  scrutiny  the  direc- 
tion towards  which  the  mental  capacity  of  each  is  tend- 
ing, and  in  which  may  be  found  the  prospects  of  a 
useful  and  successful  life.  Perhaps  in  no  other  occupa- 
tion has  so  much  misery  been  caused  as  by  the  mistaken 
choice  of  art  as  a profession  by  those  who  had  not  the 
capacity  nor  sustained  strength  to  succeed  in  it.  We 
seldom  hear  of  architects,  lawyers,  engineers,  or  minis- 
ters dying  in  a garret  of  starvation,  when  possessing 
acknowledged  powers  in  their  professions  ; but  it  has 
been  by  no  means  rare  in  art.  There  is  a lamentable 
disposition  towards  pride  and  light-headedness  in  art 
students,  as  though  they  alone  monopolized  the  genius 
of  the  world,  but  were  irresponsible  for  its  exercise. 
Now  and  then,  when  this  fails  them,  they  wage  an  un- 
equal war  with  society,  which  ends  but  in  one  way  ; but, 
if  it  does  not  so  end,  men  with  originally  excellent 
capacities  are  left  to  pursue  imbittered  and  disappointed 
lives,  railing  against  society,  and  charging  it  with  the 
responsibility  of  their  own  useless  careers.  That  arises 
from  want  of  discipline  to  begin  with,  and  the  imprac- 
tical nature  of  art  study  generally  in  the  past ; by  which 


160 


ART  EDUCATION. 


men  have  been  limited  in  their  studies,  and  tacitly 
allowed  to  regard  industrial  art  as  a prosy,  inferior  voca- 
tion, only  to  be  resorted  to  as  a last  chance,  whilst  high 
art  and  poetical  inspirations  were  the  main  business  of 
life.  How  radically  wrong  this  view  is,  may  be  seen 
by  the  biographies  of  many  great  artists  of  modern 
times,  — men  who  as  sign-painters,  wood-draughtsmen, 
pattern  designers  for  factories,  or  stone-carvers,  passed 
through  the  useful  vocation  of  industrial  art  to  the 
highest  attainments  of1  fine  art.  Sir  Francis  Chantrey 
was  a carver  before  he  became  the  distinguished  sculp- 
tor, Sir  Noel  Patou  was  a pattern-drawer,  and  Sir  John 
Gilbert  a wood-draughtsman,  before  arriving  at  surpass- 
ing excellence  in  the  highest  .walks  of  painting,  and 
wealth  and  honor  from  their  Queen  and  countrymen,  as 
a substantial  reward.  That  should  be  a lesson  to  light- 
headed art  students,  who  frothily,  despise  industry,  and 
pine  in  garrets  over  some  impossible  ideal, — the  germ 
of  proud  idleness,  — from  which  the  only  thing  to  de- 
liver them  is  practical  contact  with  the  industrial  art 
necessities  of  their  fellow  human  beings. 

Society  has  a claim  upon  every  human  creature  whom 
it  supports  and  protects  for  some  useful  work  as  a return ; 
and  when  the  facts  so  strongly  point  to  the  highest  suc- 
cess in  art,  resulting  from  the  practice  of  useful  occupa- 
tions as  preparation,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  wise  and  bene- 
ficial to  require  the  pursuit  of  some  branch  of  industrial 
art  from  every  student,  before  he  is  permitted  to  think 
about  historical  or  ideal  art.  I have  seen  students  kept 
wearily  studying  for  years  from  the  antique  and  life, 
with  the  hope  some  day  of  turning  them  out  as  histori- 
cal painters,  during  which  time  no  one  stroke  of  ser- 
viceable work  was  ever  done  by  them  to  help  forward 
the  business  of  the  world.  Out  of  fifty  so  employed, 
not  more  than  two  or  three  have  become  even  decent 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


161 


painters  ; several  have  died  from  actual  privation  ; and 
the  majority  have  sunk  into  third  or  fifth  rate  positions 
as  artistic  hacks,  or  taken  to  more  useful  lives  as  book- 
hawkers  or  storekeepers.  They  were  demoralized  by 
years  of  useless  labor,  during  which  pride  was  fostered, 
and  idleness  generated  ; and  now  it  is  hard  work  to  keep 
the  wolf  from  the  door  by  employment  which  was  pre- 
viously despised  and  for  which  they  have  had  no  prepa- 
ration. That  may  seem  a very  lamentable  description  ; 
yet  how  true  it  has  been  in  past  years  in  almost  every 
country,  the  lives  of  art  students  will  show  : and  it  is 
not  easily  obliterated  from  the  memories  of  others  who 
have  watched  and  worked  in  the  same  field.  The 
remedy  for  that  cankerworm  which  has  destroyed  so 
many  lives  is  systematic  study  towards  some  practical 
occupation,  and  a merciful  but  searching  test  of  the 
student’s  powers  as  his  education  progresses  ; whilst 
the  advice  of  the  master  concerning  what  is  best  for  the 
student’s  future  vocation  must  be,  if  necessary,  like  the 
knife  of  the  surgeon,  — cruel,  that  it  may  be  kind.  The 
example  of  Albert  Durer,  of  Cellini,  of  Flaxman,  and 
other  grand  old  art  workmen,  ought  to  be  enough  to 
consecrate  industrial  art  even  to  the  most  aspiring  of 
art  students  ; and  the  instances  of  great  and  successful 
artists  now  living,  who  are  proud  of  their  useful  lives  as 
industrial  workmen  whilst  studying  for  the  higher  sub- 
jects, are  so  numerous  as  to  be  convincing  of  the  value 
of  such  experience. 

In  different  parts  of  this  book,  I have  expressed  opin- 
ions which  show  that  I believe  in  art  study  as  equally 
adapted  to  the  occupations  of  women  as  of  men,  but  in 
this  chapter  have  referred  to  an  art  student  as  of  the 
masculine  gender  only.  That  has  been  merely  acci- 
dental, just  as  I suppose  it  is  accidental  that  angels  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures  are  invariably  masculine,  whether 


162 


ART  EDUCATION. 


faithful  or  fallen  ; not  as  suggestive  of  incapacity  on  the 
part  of  women  to  become  either  artists  or  angels,  but 
simply  as  representative  of  a human  identity,  in  the  first 
case,  perhaps  as  a spiritual  unit  in  the  second.  Any 
one  who  has  been  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  public  gal- 
leries of  Europe,  where  students  of  both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted to  copy  the  great  works,  without  any  separation 
of  the  sexes,  will  remember  how  infinitely  higher  in 
quality  the  productions  of  the  lady  students  are  than 
they  seem  to  be  in  the  female  schools  of  art.  This  may 
partly  arise  from  the  fact  that  the  best  students  only 
tire  permitted  to  copy  without  instruction  ; but  it  is  in  a 
great  measure  to  be  explained  by  their  artistic  contact 
with  their  male  fellow-students,  which  gives  them  the 
opportunity  of  seeing  various  styles  of  work  and  meth- 
ods of  painting  and  handling.  Some  of  the  freedom 
and  boldness  of  treatment  which  is  supposed  to  be  char- 
acteristic of  the  masculine  artist  become  familiar  to  and 
are  acquired  by  the  ladies,  who  on  their  part  communi- 
cate to  their  fellow-students  man}r  nameless  graces  and 
refinements.  Good  results  on  both  sides  from  this  ; and 
those  who  have  had  much  experience  in  education  will 
bear  testimony  to  many  advantages  arising  from  the  co- 
education of  the  two  sexes.  Mixed  schools  for  adults 
are  the  only  ones  which  should  be  permitted  anywhere, 
both  for  the  sake  of  education  and  morals. 

The  opening  up  of  the  subject  of  art  education  in 
this  country  seems  to  me  to  give  a great  opportunity  to 
test  the  natural  capacities  of  women,  and  will,  I hope, 
be  the  means  of  furnishing  them  with  an  additional 
source  of  employment.  At  present,  men  have  not  here 
had  a very  long  start  before  women  in  the  subject  of 
art ; and  so  we  may  possibly  see  whether,  if  both  engage 
upon  it  on  equal  terms,  either  displays  greater  faculties 
than  the  other.  For  both  economical  and  artistic  rea- 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


163 


sons,  therefore,  I would  plead  for  schools  of  art  being 
mixed  schools,  and  that  the  education  given  to  both 
sexes  should  contemplate  their  having  to  live  by  the 
artistic  labor  of  their  own  hands. 

ART  AS  AN  OCCUPATION  FOR  WOMEN. 

In  speaking  about  the  suitability  of  art  study  as  a 
training  for  women,  and  its  practical  value  as  fitting 
them  for  the  serious  duties  of  life,  by  which  in  any  event 
they  make  themselves  independent  members  of  society, 
I am  conscious  that  I touch  on  a subject  upon  which 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  at  least,  and  latterly 
much  controversy.  In  view  of  this,  and  only  recogniz- 
ing the  difference  of  muscular  strength  in  the  sexes, 
existing  for  obvious  reasons,  and  which  according  to 
every  natural  law  must  be  compensated  for  by  some 
special  endowment  not  possessed  by  the  muscularly 
strong,  (or  Nature  has  been  less  just  to  her  last  creation 
than  to  all  others),  I judge  from  my  own  experience 
that  the  whole  subject  is  one  of  great  interest,  and  that 
the  compensation  referred  to  takes  the  form  physically 
of  a more  delicate  organization,  and  mentally  of  a 
greater  sensitiveness  to  outward  influences.  Theories 
seem  to  me  to  be  fairly  deducible  from  practice,  by  those 
who  may  have  no  claim  to  be  philosophers,  or  who  do  not 
possess  the  original  faculty  of  inductive  reasoning  ; al- 
ways supposing  that  those  who  practise  have  sufficiently 
long  and  extensive  practice,  and  seek  rather  to  discover 
a principle  for  their  own  guidance  than  to  establish  a 
theory  preconceived  or  borrowed  from  others.  My  own 
fear  has  been,  and  now  is,  that  hitherto  women  have 
been  treated  as  pets  and  playthings,  to  be  indulged  and 
delighted  in,  but  not  to  be  held  responsible  for  any 
thing ; have  been  educated  with  the  view  that  all  should 
become  merely  the  ornaments  of  society  and  not  its  essen- 


164 


ART  EDUCATION. 


tials,  and  the  important  half  of  its  structure ; that,  finally, 
men  have  come  to  regard  women  with  a patronizing 
feeling,  in  which  there  is  an  infinite  amount  of  good  na- 
ture in  some  cases,  but  no  justice  in  any  case.  And 
the  terrible  thing  is,  that,  when  the  good  nature  ceases, 
or  the  indulgence  necessary  to  a plaything  comes  to  an 
end,  all  the  penalties  fall  on  one  side  only : the  whole 
of  the  sauce  is  used  up  for  the  goose,  whilst  the  gander 
stalks  away  to  new  fields  that  are  ever  verdant  and 
fresh,  and  indulges  his  gandorial  magnificence. 

Christianity  and  May  meetings  ought  to  have  had  long 
enough  opportunities  in  nearly  nineteen  hundred  years 
to  test  the  fairness  and  justice  of  this  view  of  human 
nature ; but  they  seem  to  me  to  have  failed  to  discover, 
that,  whatever  difference  our  beneficent  Creator  meant  to 
exist  in  his-  design  of  human  beings,  he  usually  places 
there  with  his  own  Almighty  hand,  and  requires  no  fur- 
ther journeyman’s  work  on  man’s  part  to  emphasize  or 
stamp  this  difference.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this,  we  educate 
women  superficially,  and  then  smugly  say  they  have  no 
minds  ; we  withhold  all  reasoning  processes  from  them, 
and  then  say  they  cannot  argue,  but  jump  at  conclusions; 
we  train  and  grind  up  our  boj^s  in  athletic  sports,  in 
Euclid  and  conic  sections,  and  the  differential  calcu- 
lus, and  our  girls  in  Berlin-wool  work,  in  waltz-playing, 
and  the  Paris  fashions,  and  then  proclaim  that  men  can 
reason,  women  only  perceive,  men  can  create,  women 
only  appreciate  ; and  as  Milton  the  Puritan  poet  ex- 
presses it,  — 

“ For  contemplation  he,  and  valor  formed  ; * 

For  softness  she,  and  sweet  attractive  grace,”  — 

as  though  contemplation  were  not  equally  character- 
istic of  both  sexes,  the  combination  of  leisure,  a stored 


. * Not  trained. 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


165 


mind,  and  subject  to  contemplate ; valor,  the  result  of 
self-confidence  in  training,  and  difficulties  already  over- 
come, and  faith  in  surmounting  future  difficulties;  soft- 
ness and  sweet  attractive  grace,  the  natural  appreciation 
of  each  sex  by  the  other,  as  much  belonging  to  men  as 
to  women,  common  to  the  two  sexes,  which  are  alter- 
nately the  attracted  and  the  attractive. 

My  own  belief  is,  that  we  have  no  grounds  for  and  no 
right  in  making  any  difference  whatsoever  in  human  be- 
ings on  account  of  sex,  either  in  their  education  or  occu- 
pations, more  than  Nature  has  done  ; and  that  half  of  the 
troubles  we  find  in  the  world  arise  from,  and  are  a just 
judgment  upon,  our  presumption  in  making  any  distinc- 
tion between  them,  in  fostering  the  self-conceit  of  the 
one,  and  sacrificing  the  independence  of  the  other.  Let 
the  same  education  from  the  first  to  the  last,  physical 
and  mental,  be  furnished  for  both  sexes  ; let  it  be  ac- 
cepted, that,  as  they  require  the  same  physical  sustenance, 
so  they  will  need  the  same  intellectual  food ; that  the 
two  who  will  in  time  become  one  flesh  shall  be  in  unison 
and  harmony  with  each  other,  in  attainments  and  desires, 
in  their  minds  as  well  as  their  bodies,  and  then  we  shall 
have  the  perfect  harmony  in  difference,  Avhich  we  see  in 
all  God's  works,  leaving  it  humbly  to  him  that  all  His  plans 
shall  develop  themselves  with  as  much  certainty  as 
that  He  creates  each  after  its  kind,  without  any  imperti- 
nent help  from  us.  The  compensation  which  it  appears 
to  me  Nature  makes  to  women  for  the  comparative  with- 
holding of  muscular  strength,  is  endowing  them  with 
greater  powers  of  endurance  in  the  first  place,  and  a 
gift  of  natural  aptitude  and  quickness,  which,  when  it 
exists  in  men,  we  call  mother-wit.  Thus  we  see  that 
whilst  men  become  irritated  and  impatient  of  the  repe- 
tition of  little  troubles,  and  would  put  a violent  end  to 
them,  women,  like  charity,  are  long-suffering  and  kind 


166 


ART  EDUCATION. 


over  vexations,  which  in  connection  with  their  children 
and  other  cares  often  last  daily  for  years.  The  quick- 
ness and  aptitude  they  have  may  be  the  support  which 
Nature  gives  them  through  their  instincts,  as  a balance 
to  men’s  muscular  superiority;  and  this  seems  to  me  to 
indicate  that  the  sensitive  touch  and  quick  perception 
and  delicate  hand  point  out  the  practice  of  art  as  pe- 
culiarly adapted  for  a woman’s  occupation,  being  in 
itself  the  most  refined  and  delicate  of  all  manual  labor, 
as  it  is  also  the  most  perfect  expression  of  the  impres- 
sions we  receive,  through  our  eyes,  of  physical  phe- 
nomena. 

It  may  be,  that,  should  we  recognize  this  view,  the 
fair  division  of  labor,  which  somehow  or  other  must  be 
made,  will  be  facilitated,  and  both  sexes  profit  by  it. 
If  we  remove  all  masculine  protective  tariffs,  we  may 
find  great  powers  where  we  have  fancied  that  weakness 
was  inevitable.  In  literature,  we  have  some  of  the 
most  powerful  works  of  the  imagination  written  b}' 
women  ; and  they  fetch  the  same  price  in  the  book  mar- 
ket as  the  novels  which  men  have  written.  In  the 
picture  exhibition,  the  buyer  discusses  a work  of  art  in 
relation  to  its  price,  not  with  reference  to  the  sex  of  the 
painter;  and  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  London 
exhibitions  know  that  as  large  a proportion  of  the  works 
displayed  in  the  exhibition  of  the  Society  of  Female 
Artists  are  sold  as  in  any  other  exhibition  composed 
principally  of  the  works  of  men.  That,  however,  is  the 
case  with  books  and  pictures  only,  where  women  sell 
their  labor  at  their  own  time,  and  choose  the  purchasers, 
being  proprietors  of  their  own  skill.  In  eveiy  other 
avocation  that  I know,  the  same  work,  performed  in  the 
same  manner  and  with  equal  skill,  is  paid  for  at  an 
entirely  different  rate  to  the  two  sexes.  This  is  espe- 
ciall}’  the  case  in  education,  whose  influence  on  the 


26. 


GROUND  PT.AN  OP  THE  SOUTH  KENSINGTON  MUSEUM,  LONDON. 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


167 


happiness  and  safety  of  the  human  race  cannot  be 
overrated,  that,  of  those  who  are  employed  to  train  up 
our  children  in  the  paths  of  rectitude  and  strict  morality, 
nine-tenths  of  them  are  paid  for  their  labor  at  about 
half  the  price  they  would  receive  if  they  were  men,  — 
an  unfortunate  example  to  them  of  how  they  should 
teach  rectitude  and  instil  moral  principles. 

If  a woman  and  a man  were  by  their  industry  to  raise 
two  barrels  of  potatoes,  and  each  took  a barrel  to  the 
market,  the  market  price  of  a barrel  of  potatoes  would  be 
given  to  both  for  their  goods.  If  a woman  and  a man 
b3r  their  industry  and  training  grow  the  ability  to  teach, 
and  take  their  goods  to  sell  in  the  educational  market, 
both  being  of  the  same  quality,  tried  by  every  test,  the 
man  will  be  paid  by  the  purchaser  nearly  fifty  per  cent 
more  than  the  woman ; and  the  latter  is  of  necessity 
obliged  to  take  the  unrighteous  offer.  That  is  to  say, 
when  we  are  buying  food  for  our  bodies,  or  to  fatten 
our  hogs,  we  do  fairly  to  all  who  have  to  sell ; when  we 
purchase  intellectual  sustenance,  to  educate  and  develop 
our  children,  we  pay  those  who  have  education  to  sell, 
if  they  are  women,  at  fifty  per  cent  less  price  than  we 
should  pay  them  if  we  were  buying  potatoes  of  them  for 
our  swine. 

The  minds  and  souls  of  our  children  seem  to  me  to 
be  of  as  much  importance  as  their  bodies,  and  even  as 
the  bodies  of  any  other  animals ; but  here,  in  comparison, 
by  an  act  of  injustice,  we  undervalue  them  about  fifty 
per  cent.  If  women  supply  us  with  only  half  as  good 
an  article  as  men,  we  do  an  injustice  to  our  children  by 
employing  them ; if  the  article  supplied  by  women  is 
as  good  as  that  supplied  by  men,  we  rob  them  of  every 
dollar  we  should  pay  men  for  it,  but  don’t  pay  to 
women. 

So  that,  in  the  educational  labor  market  generally,  we 


168 


ART  EDUCATION. 


act  inconsistently,  and  inflict  penalties  upon  those  from 
whom  we  require  the  most  exalted  service.  This  can- 
not be  for  the  public  good,  but  proceeds  from  the  limita- 
tion cf  occupations  suitable  to  women,  resulting  from 
their  utterly  unpractical  education,  which  throws  almost 
all  women  of  the  middle  class  who  are  without  means 
into  the  educational  market.  By  this,  individual  labor 
is  reduced  in  value,  the  market  being  glutted.  The  pur- 
chaser, therefore,  goes  in  and  buys  up  what  he  wants  at 
half-price,  the  needy  seller  sacrificing  it,  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  half  a loaf  is  better  than  no  bread.  This  is 
the  explanation  of  a condition  of  things,  which  is,  from 
the  public  point  of  view,  utterly  suicidal  economically, 
and  the  root  of  many  evils  morally.  We  have  drifted 
helplessly,  but,  I trust,  not  j'et  hopelessly,  into  social 
circumstances,  by  which  the  intellectual  powers  of  half 
of  the  human  kind  are  left  dormant,  and  remain  stunted 
and  undeveloped;  so  much  so,  that  but  a very  limited 
number  of  occupations  arc  possible  to  women,  and  of  these, 
from  our  worship  of  a fetich  called  Mrs.  Grundy,  many 
are  deemed  unsuitable.  Yet  Nature  goes  ou  laughing  at 
the  little  golden  calf  that  we  have  set  up,  and  bringing 
into  t lie  world  more  women  than  men,  whose  minds 
and  actions  we  deliberately  cramp  more  than  John  Chi- 
naman does  the  foot  of  his  female  minister,  who  is  so 
much  his  mere  chattel  as  to  be  drowned  by  him,  or  sold 
to  his  neighbor,  to  suit  his  own  convenience,  without 
interference  by  the  law. 

I don't  regard  this  as  so  much  a woman’s  question  as 
a man's  question,  and  not  as  a sentimental  question  at 
all,  and  decline  to  be  made,  by  my  own  consent,  a prac- 
tical sufferer  economically  by  the  sentiment  which  others 
import  into  it.  I want  to  feel  the  sensation  of  common 
honesty, — that  I pay  for  a dollar’s  worth  of  work  with 
a dollar,  and  not  with  fifty  cents,  whether  I buy  it  of  a 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


169 


woman  or  a man ; and  I want  to  see  one-half  of  the 
human  beings  that  are  born  do  half  the  work  which  is 
to  be  done,  and  receive  half  its  recompense.  For  every 
portion  of  that  half  of  the  work  which  men  withhold 
from  women,  men  have  to  make  up  by  additions  to  their 
own  half ; and  for  every  dollar  withheld  from  them  for 
work  done,  men  have  to  pay  them  in  some  way,  directly 
or  indirectly,  as  a question  of  sentiment  or  charity ; 
which  destroys  self-respect  and  independence  in  women, 
and  develops  in  them  slavishness  and  timidity,  distrust 
in  themselves,  and  absence  of  self-reliance  and  self- 
helpfulness. 

I am  aware  that  for  this  deplorable  condition  of  things 
no  one  is  directly  to  blame,  and  that  men  are  sometimes 
very  hardly  judged  by  women  as  being  wholly  respon- 
sible for  it.  We  have  drifted  into  it,  having  set  too 
much  store  by  that  Eastern  estimate  of  women  we 
originally  received  from  the  Jews,  and  might  as  well 
have  adhered  to  burnt-offerings,  peace-offerings,  and 
sacrifices,  as  to  still  keep  up  the  senseless  distinctions 
of  sex  which  came  to  us  from  the  land  of  harems  and 
fatalism  ? It  is  time  to  wake  up  from  our  delusion  on 
this  matter,  — time  for  men  to  reject  with  the  scorn 
and  contempt  it  deserves  the  masculine  and  femi- 
nine chirruping  of  those  who  accuse  women-helpers  of  a 
desire  to  unsex  them,  as  though  that  were  possible. 
Here  we  see  women  of  ability  and  power  running  off 
into  all  kinds  of  lamentable  delusions,  and  inventing 
pestilent  doctrines  concerning  their  relationship  to  men, 
all  for  the  want  of  sound  practical  education,  good, 
healthy  work,  and  fair  treatment ; and  yet  we  fold  our 
hands,  and  stand  idly  by,  horrified  at  the  phantom  our 
neglect  has  called  up,  instead  of  remedying  it  by  the 
only  possible  specific,  — work  and  wages,  and  plenty  of 
both.  We  ought  to  clear  away  the  fanatical  cobwebs  iu 


170 


ART  EDUCATION. 


women’s  brains,  — engendered  by  superficial  education, 
by  their  sense  of  unjust  treatment,  and  partly  by  en- 
forced idleness,  — with  a vigorous  blast  of  wholesome 
labor  in  any  capacity  or  occupation  they  choose  them- 
selves, or  can  do  the  best  at : and  let  us  once  for  all  try 
and  learn  the  truth,  that  sin  and  labor  are  of  no  sex,  and 
that  any  professional  or  manual  occupation  a decent 
woman  could  not  worthily  be  employed  in,  a decent 
man  has  no  right  to  engage  upon ; whilst  every  em- 
ployment that  is  necessary  and  honorable  is  as  much  so 
to  one  sex  as  to  the  other,  the  fitness  of  each  for  any 
occupation  being  controlled  only  by  their  physical 
powers.  This,  I maintain,  is  not  a sentimental  view.  It 
is,  for  aught  I know,  the  view  of  many  besides  myself ; 
though  having  never  had  time  to  read  either  book  or 
pamphlet  on  the  woman’s-rights  question,  I may  be  ad- 
vancing very  old  arguments : but  this  does  not  affect  the 
rightness  or  wrongness  of  m3'  own  judgment,  inasmuch 
as  these  conclusions  have  been  arrived  at  independently, 
b)’  practical  observation  extending  over  many  years, 
during  which  time  I have  been  a dail)'  educator  of  adult 
women,  and  thus  know  something  of  their  wants  and 
their  powers.  Experiments  for  educating  women  and 
men  together  are  familiar  to  me  ; and  so  also  is  the  strict 
separation  of  the  sexes  educationally.  The  former,  in 
ever}'  case  coming  within  my  observation,  has  been 
beneficial  to  both ; and  the  latter  as  detrimental.  For 
this  reason  I would  as  strongly  oppose  colleges  and  uni- 
versities for  women  only  as  for  men  only,  each  being 
but  half  the  story  ; and  the  next  great  act  of  justice  and 
wisdom  which  the  just  and  wise  should  be  called  upon 
to  perform  is  opening  all  the  universities  and  schools 
and  colleges  to  women,  in  which  the}'  may  acquire 
the  educational  basis  of  all  the  professions.  The  dan- 
gers which  sage  people  with  telescopic  minds  decry  in 


SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 


171 


the  distance,  when  “ sweet  girl  graduates  ” are  placed 
in  daily  association  with  their  graduating  brethren,  is  a 
danger  which  is  existing  in  their  own  households,  at 
their  neighbors’  hearthstones,  in  their  own  churches, 
and  in  all  social  assemblies  every  day,  without  destroy- 
ing them.  If  it  be  true  that  young  men  and  women 
cannot  meet  on  the  same  staircase,  listen  to  the  same 
lectures,  and  study  the  same  subjects  together,  without 
disrespectful  treatment  of  one  another,  and  without 
influencing  each  other  badly,  it  is  something  exactly 
contrary  to  my  experience  for  twenty  years  ; but,  if  it  is 
really  the  case,  the  sooner  they  are  taught  to  do  so  by 
actual  experience,  the  better  for  every  one  concerned. 
It  is  a scandal  and  disgrace  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, if  it  be.  so. 

I have  dwelt  more  fully  upon  this  topic  than  I should 
have  felt  warranted  in  doing,  but  for  the  fact  that  art 
study  especially  (in  which  knowledge  of  the  human 
form  is  an  essential  to  success  in  the  highest  branches) 
is  one  of  the  subjects  which  Mrs.  Grundy  has  her  opin- 
ions about,  and  darkly  hints  at  the  shocking  things 
which  sometimes  happen,  when  women  take  to  studying 
art,  anatomy,  and  other  fearful  subjects,  that  ladies  of 
delicate  perceptions  should  never  think  about.  That 
kind  of  grundyism  must  be  wiped  out ; and  I know  no 
better  way  of  doing  it  than  by  proving  or  making  all 
such  studies  so  pure  and  morally  harmless  that  the 
purest -minded  woman  can  study  them  without  any 
shock  to  her  most  delicate  perceptions,  and  with  much 
profit  to  her  knowledge,  and  carry  on  her  studies  side 
by  side  with  her  masculine  fellow-students.  If  there  be 
any  apples  on  the  tree  of  knowledge  which  Eve  must 
neither  touch  nor  taste,  I think,  on  the  whole,  Adam  will 
be  better  without  them  ; and  history,  if  it  sets  a prece- 
dent at  all,  records  at  least  one  instance  where  the  same 
fruit  was  forbidden  to  both,  — not  to  one  only. 


172 


ART  EDUCATION. 


It  is  some  comfort  to  know  that  many  of  the  preserves 
of  knowledge  have  been  successfully  besieged  by  women, 
and  that  colleges  of  surgeons  and  physicians,  and  acade- 
mies of  arts,  whether  royal  or  republican,  are  surrender- 
ing unconditionally  to  the  demands  of  lady  students  for 
admission  and  degrees.  In  this  crusade,  men  have  taken 
the  sorry  part  of  obstructives,  helped  and  encouraged 
thereto  by  the  cackling  of  some  women  who  profess  in 
such  matters  to  be  anxious  only  for  the  happiness  of 
their  own  sex,  but  who,  if  they  had  ever  faced  the  diffi- 
culties of  providing  for  themselves,  might  very  quickly 
find  good  grounds  for  changing  their  opinions.  Remem- 
bering, too,  the  indescribable  amount  of  influence  which 
women  have  upon  their  children,  I cannot  imagine  it 
possible  to  over-eclucate  them ; for  every  word  and 
thought  they  utter  is  unconsciously  shaping  the  minds 
and  lives  of  their  children,  whilst  yet  of  tender  age  ; 
and  when  we  consider  how  almost  invariable  it  has 
been,  that  the  great  men  of  all  ages  have  owed  their 
first  inspirations  and  their  habits  of  thought  to  their 
mothers,  whose  superiority  to  other  women  has  been 
that  of  a higher  education,  it  would  appear  to  be  estab- 
lished, that,  whatever  it  may  be  necessary  to  teach  to 
men  in  this  world,  it  is  a matter  of  necessity  to  teach 
to  women,  in  order  that  the  man’s  education  may  begin 
with  his  life,  and  his  mind  be  nurtured  with  his  body, 
that  perfect  human  education  may  be  accomplished. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN  IN  FORM  AND  COLOR. 
ESIGN  may  be  described  as  the  arrangement,  or 


formation  upon  a defined  plan,  of  any  thing  which 
is  for  the  use  or  enjoyment  of  human  beings,  in 
which  the  element  of  taste  is  displayed,  either  in  form 
or  color. 

Among  the  many  definitions  whereby  the  human  ani- 
mal, man , is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  animals,  — 
such  as  that  he  cooks  his  food,  or  that  he  is  a bargaining 
animal,  or  that  he  is  a wearer  of  clothes,  which  are  half 
true  and  wholly  amusing,  — comes  the  philosophic  defi- 
nition, that  man  is  a user  of  tools,  and  a designing  ani- 
mal. 

Perhaps  no  more  interesting  subject  exists  as  a study 
than  the  consideration  of  the  weapons  and  implements 
used  by  men  in  all  ages,  from  the  flint  arrows  and  hatch- 
ets of  our  nude  forefathers,  to  the  revolver,  sewing- 
machine,  and  steam-plough  of  this  present  elaborately 
clothed  race.  There  is.  history  itself  in  every  one  of 
these ; and  the  student  and  antiquarian  who  treasure 
up  and  explain  these  relics  of  the  past,  or  compare 
them  with  their  representatives  of  the  present,  are 
themselves  an  illustration  of  one  of  the  truest  definitions 


173 


174 


ART  EDUCATION. 


of  the  human  race  ; for  men  alone  are  students  and 
antiquarians. 

I believe  there  exists  in  the  interior  of  Africa  a tribe 
of  human  creatures  who  may  be  described  as  a connect- 
ing-link between  the  lowest  order  of  men  and  the  high- 
est  order  of  animals,  who  are  not  men.  They  are  ar- 
rayed, not  in  the  latest  Paris  fashions,  but  in  the  simple 
costume  of  our  first  parents  before  their  expulsion  from 
paradise:  they  build  no  houses  nor  huts  nor  tents,  but 
scrape  a hole  in  the  earth,  or  enlarge  a crevice  already 
existing,  which  gives  to  them  shelter,  and  their  name  of 
Earthmen.  These  men  seldom  cook  their  food,  but  eat 
it  as  soon  as  caught,  as  the  hawk  or  the  lion  does,  and 
in  a very  similar  way ; and  it  is  believed,  that,  whenever 
a bushman  or  earthman  is  found  to  be  roasting  his  meat, 
it  has  been  the  result  of  his  demoralization  through  con- 
tact with  civilization.  They  don’t  bargain,  and  they 
don’t  design,  but  they  do  use  tools ; i.e.,  they  slay  their 
victims  with  a wooden  brand,  or  smite  their  prey  with  a 
stone.  I have  had  the  honor  of  a personal  introduction 
to  a lady  and  gentleman  of  this  interesting  tribe  ; * and  it 
was  with  some  difficulty  I could  bring  myself  to  regard 
the  gentleman  as  a man  and  a brother,  or  the  lady  as  a 
woman  and  a sister,  especially  as  they  had  no  names, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  conversation,  which  was  rather 
one-sided,  I had  to  invent  one  something  like  Kickaboo, 
which  was  acknowledged  by  a grunt  of  approbation  from 
the  gentleman  addressed. 

Now,  between  these  creatures  and  the  painter  of  the 
Sistine  Madonna,  or  the  discoverer  and  adapter  of  elec- 
tricity, there  is  apparently  a great  gulf  fixed : yet  it  is 
only  apparently ; for,  seen  closely,  the  gulf  is  a ladder,  or 
staircase,  of  many  rounds  or  steps,  Kickaboo  being  at  the 


Their  portrait-statues,  cast  from  life,  are  now  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham. 


RST  C1 


HOT. 


DEFINITIVE 
OR  FUNDAMENTAL 


SCALE 
OF  COLORS. 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


175 


bottom,  and  Raphael  or  Morse  at  the  top.  It  seems  to 
me,  that  the  first  step  from  the  bottom  (which  is  a dead- 
level,  occupied  promiscuously  by  all  animals)  is  the  use 
of  tools,  and  the  second  step  is  design.  How  far  the 
bushman  and  the  gorilla  are  the  same  or  similar  crea- 
tures, I am  not  prepared  to  say ; but  they  are  both  on 
the  same  round  in  this  ladder  at  present : they  both 
use  brands  as  implements  of  attack  or  defence,  and  they 
neither  of  them  design. 

Leaving  them,  we  find,  that  in  the  condition  of  most 
of  the  savage  races,  and  also  of  many  of  the  semi-barbar- 
ous tribes,  though  progress  may  have  been  arrested  at  a 
particular  stage,  and  the  stage  has  in  their  cases  become 
archaic,  yet  it  is  difficult  to  discover  any  race  of  men 
who  have  not  in  some,  degree  practised  a species  of  de- 
sign. The  first  step  is  the  making  of  tools ; the  second, 
making  them  comely  and  attractive.  Whatever  man 
has  to  make  out  of  a combination  which  does  not  exist 
naturally  may  be  described  as  an  implement.  Even  a 
house  is  an  implement  of  protection  against  the  weather 
as  much  as  an  umbrella  is  ; and  so  surely  as  that  a race  of 
men  begin  to  make  themselves  weapons  or  implements, 
will  they  also  endeavor  to  make  them  beautiful.  Here 
at  this  low  stage  of  civilization  comes  in  design ; and 
from  that  up  to  the  highest  phases  of  development,  as 
seen  in  the  Medici  tombs  or  the  Elgin  marbles,  is  only 
a question  of  degree,  not  one  of  kind.  The  germ  of 
Michael  Angelo  may  be  said  to  have  existed  in  the  first 
savage  who  cut  a rude  ornament  on  his  war-club  ; the 
first  step  towards  producing  a Raphael  was  taken  when 
colored  earth  was  rubbed  over  men’s  bodies  to  make 
them  attractive  to  their  friends  or  terrible  to  their  ene- 
mies. 

All  the  rest  has  been  a greater  or  less  application  of 
the  principle  of  design,  having  its  roots  in  the  desire  to 


176 


ART  EDUCATION. 


create  the  beautiful,  a desire  common  to  the  human  race 
after  its  first  purety  animal  stages. 

Now,  as  ornamentation  does  not  increase  the  mere 
usefulness  of  any  thing,  it  comes  into  existence  as  an 
expression  of  some  inherent  desire ; and  it  is  to  be 
noticed,  that  radically  it  is  an  evidence  of  love,  — the 
objects  first  ornamented  being  those  prized  for  their 
usefulness,  and  valued  and  loved  by  the  possessor,  who 
adorns  and  thus  honors  them.  That  is  a human  thread, 
or  filament,  which  runs  through  every  human  weft,  and  is 
as  common  to  civilized  men  as  possession  of  the  physical 
senses  of  sight  and  hearing.  We  do  not  wish  to  orna- 
ment things  we  care  nothing  about,  or  put  to  mean  and 
ignoble  purposes;  on  the  other  hand,  the  objects  we 
most  love,  we  love  to  see  beautiful  and  beautified  by  all 
the  resources  of  art.  “ The  king's  daughter  is  all  glo- 
rious  within:  her  clothing  is  of  wrought  gold,’’  — that 
is  merely  a description  of  the  desire  to  lavish  on  a 
lovable  object  the  purely  human  expression  of  our  love, 
and  a statement  that  it  has  been  done,  whatever  else  it 
may  mean  symbolically.  When  we  consider  how  gen- 
eral this  feeling  has  been  in  all  ages  and  among  all 
peoples,  it  can  only  be  explained  as  a necessity  to  human 
happiness;  and  it  is  the  inevitable  sign  of  progress  and 
civilization  : for  barbarism,  which  ignores  the  past  and 
defies  the  future,  caring  only  for  the  present,  concerns 
itself  very  little  with  care  of  antiquities,  or  thoughtful 
provision  for  posterity.  Still  less  does  it  trouble  itself 
with  the  ideal,  which  is  the  fire  burning  on  the  altar  of 
perfection;  or  the  beautiful,  which,  in  its  relation  to  us, 
is  our  appreciation  of  God's  laws.  Barbarism  may  be 
said  to  be  an  ignorant  or  selfish  existence  from  hand  to 
mouth:  civilization  is  a consistent  living  as  tenant  in 
possession  of  the  earth,  with  reverence  and  respect  for 
the  past  and  thoughtful  provision  for  the  future  ; whilst 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


177 


it  secures  all  that  may  be  honestly  obtained  for  the 
present.  Thus  recklessness  and  barbarism  are  sug- 
gested by  the  destruction  of  accumulated  art  in  the 
words,  “ But  now  they  break  down  all  the  carved  work 
with  axes  and  hammers : ” constructiveness  and  civili- 
zation are  equally  indicated  by  the  expression,  “ He 
hath  loved  our  nation,  and  built  us  a synagogue.” 

It  is  prima  facial  evidence  of  progress,  that  a nation 
will  not  ignore  landmarks,  nor  despise  the  wisdom  of 
past  ages : it  is  conclusive  proof  of  advancement  when 
a people  estimates  past  experience  at  its  full  value, 
whilst  it  claims  for  itself  independent  action  for  the 
present,  and  displays  consideration  for  the  future.  The 
tendency  of  art  and  design  is  to  help  forward  civiliza- 
tion, by  providing  a peaceful  object  on  which  to  expend 
both  love  and  genius.  It  is  also  to  be  regarded  as  a 
thermometer  of  national  development ; for  so  long  as 
the  inventive  powers  are  displayed  in  discoveries  of 
new  processes  or  the  improvement  of  old  ones,  and  art 
is  employed  to  enrich  and  ennoble  the  nation  by  its 
triumphs,  the  meridian  of  that  nation  has  not  yet  been 
reached  ; but  when  love  of  the  beautiful  decays,  and  art 
is  on  the  decline,  then,  in  fact,  people  are  relapsing 
into  barbarism,  and  neither  civilization  nor  society  will 
long  survive  their  extinction.  The  influence  of  good 
design  upon  the  happiness  of  people  is  real,  if  not  direct. 
A sense  of  fitness  and  propriety,  of  unconscious  rest, 
marks  the  presence  of  good  design.  The  opposite  sen- 
sation is  the  inevitable  accompaniment  of  bad  design. 

The  perfect  adaptation  to  purpose  of  every  thing 
which  God  has  made  and  men  have  left  alone,  or  which 
has  had  strength  enough  to  resist  his  corruption,  has 
given  us  a standard  by  which  the  arts  and  works  of 
men  may  be  judged,  and  by  which,  consciously  or 
unconsciously,  we  form  an  opinion  about  them.  Thus 


178 


ART  EDUCATION. 


it  often  happens  that  a person  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
practice  of  art,  or  the  canons  of  taste,  may,  by  intimate 
acquaintance  with  natural  laws  and  phenomena,  be  a 
keen  and  impartial  judge,  by  simply  criticising  a work 
as  though  it  were  nature,  not  art.  That  applies  outy 
to  such  phases  in  it  as  claim  to  be  like  nature,  and  not 
to  those  higher  developments  of  intellectual  effort  or 
achievements  in  processes  which  are  the  outcomings  of 
profound  knowledge  and  the  ripest  technical  skill.  In 
considering  design  adapted  to  the  ornamentation  of 
useful  objects,  the  only  sound  standard  will  be  that 
which  requires  the  ornament  to  increase  their  beauty, 
without  limiting  their  usefulness.  That  is  the  first  and 
absolutely  essential  condition  ; but  it  is  poor  design  in 
which  no  effort  is  made  to  increase  the  usefulness  whilst 
adding  to  the  beauty  of  an  object,  not  only  in  an  aes- 
thetic, but  a utilitarian  point  of  view.  Industrial  pro- 
ducts capable  of  displaying  taste,  and  in  which  it  is 
utterly  ignored,  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  be  the 
work  of  barbarous  originators,  as  little  to  be  trusted  for 
the  choice  of  good  material  or  practice  of  sound  work- 
manship as  for  other  indications  of  skill,  which  are 
manifestly  deficient : but,  on  the  other  hand,  simplicity 
is  not  barbarism  ; and  infinitely  better  is  the  absence  of 
any  design  than  the  presence  of  that  which  is  vulgar  or 
false.  Though  we  may  prefer  a man  with  the  culture 
and  manners  of  a gentleman  to  a man  with  the  igno- 
rance and  uncouthness  of  an  agricultural  laborer ; yet 
a plain,  honest  man,  however  ignorant  and  uncouth, 
who  affects  to  be  nothing  but  what  he  is,  is  an  infinitely 
better  and  pleasanter  companion  than  one,  who,  by 
vulgar  arts,  pretends  to  be  better  than  he  is,  whose 
manners,  learning,  appearance,  and  character  are  as- 
sumed and  worn,  like  his  clothes,  to  conceal  himself,  — 
shams  like  his  jeweliy,  and  base  as  its  metal. 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN 


179 


The  general  principles  of  design,  and  their  application, 
seem  at  once  to  grow  out  of  a true  knowledge  of  its 
origin,  which  I have  endeavored  to  explain. 

The  ornamentation  of  an  article  of  use  is  something 
which  is  quite  unnecessary  to  it.  It  is  bad  ornament 
when  that  use  is  interfered  with,  or  limited  in  any  way, 
by  the  ornament  itself.  The  tendency  of  ignorant  de- 
signers is  generally  in  the  direction  of  profusion,  — over- 
loading, perhaps,  a simple  object  with  excess  of  ornament, 
in  which  the  original  use  of  the  object  is  ignored  or  con- 
cealed. This  excess  of  ornament  is  not  enrichment : it 
is  merely  ostentatious  vulgarity ; and,  unless  there  is  a 
large  proportion  of  plain  parts  in  a decorated  object,  it 
comes  to  be  like  the  plum-pudding  which  was  all  plums 
and  no  flour,  — nauseating  and  of  evil  influence.  In  the 
best  periods  of  art,  that  was  always  avoided  ; and  any 
development  in  that  direction  is  a certain  indication  of 
a low  state  of  public  taste.  A lavish  profusion  of  orna- 
ment or  decoration  is  often  resorted  to,  to  covet  inferior 
work  in  the  construction ; and  you  may  always  regard 
with  suspicion  anjr  thing  which  appears  to  be  more  pre- 
tentious than  its  importance  warrants.  Common  sense 
supplies  us  with  the  soundest  canons  of  taste  in  designs 
for  manufactures.  A certain  amount  of  work  has  to 
be  expended  on  the  production  of  every  object  of  use  : 
then  there  is  the  cost  of  the  material ; and  out  of  the 
sum-total  you  must  subtract  the  cost  of  the  ornamenta- 
tion, and  you  have  the  utilitarian  cost,  and  possibly 
value  left,  of  the  thing  purchased. 

It  follows,  then,  that,  when  too  large  a proportion  of 
the  labor  has  been  expended  in  ornamentation,  too  little 
has  been  left  for  good  workmanship  in  the  construction, 
or  quality  in  the  material.  Take  a chair  as  an  illustra- 
tion. Let  it  be  smothered  with  carving,  and  its  arms  and 
legs  twisted  and  indented  with  all  kinds  of  curves  and 


180 


ART  EDUCATION. 


enrichments,  and  I,  for  one,  avoid  it  as  an  object  of  use, 
both  because  some  clever  bit  of  sculpture  is  sure  to  stick 
into  one  at  some  unsuspected  spot,  and  because,  with 
such  flaunting  pretension,  I suspect  the  moral  character 
of  its  workmanship. 

Again,  that  species  of  design  which  consists  in  the 
mere  imitation  of  a natural  object,  and  making  it  into  an 
article  of  use  by  some  talented  contrivance,  is  an  abomi- 
nation : it  is  an  insult  to  nature,  and  a confession  of 
utter  poverty  in  design.  The  application  of  any  object 
to  fulfil  a purpose  for  which  the  original  would  have 
been  ill  adapted  or  impracticable,  is  also  an  error  in 
design. 

I see  in  the  windows  crucifixes  in  green  glass,  sold  as 
candlesticks.  Imaqine  the  bowed  head  of  the  Saviour 
on  the  cross  covered  with  tallow-grease  ! The  man  who 
designed  that,  and  the  man  who  manufactured  it,  ought 
either  to  be  working  together  in  a school  of  design,  or 
in . I am  not  quite  sure  which  [the  reader  may  sup- 

ply the  omitted  alternative  workroom  according  to  his 
own  notions  of  mercy  or  justice]. 

We  will  now  "lance  for  a few  moments  at  the  influ- 

O 

enee  of  color  in  design,  and  upon  the  sensations  of  sight, 
through  which,  indirectly,  the  mind  is  affected.  Per- 
haps color  may  be  said  to  affect  the  mind  more  power- 
fully and  directly  than  form.  A man  could  no  more 
live  in  a room  painted  a glaring  red  color  than  he  could 
live  in  a fire,  or  stare  at  the  noonda}''  sun  ; and  though 
less  positive  colors  affect  the  sensations  to  a slighter 
degree,  every  color,  as  well  as  every  combination  of 
colors,  has  a sensible  influence  upon  the  feelings. 

Colors  influence  the  sensations  through  the  eye,  the 
same  as  sounds  affect  them  through  the  ear.  Arranged 
systematically,  with  due  regard  to  proportion  and  num- 
bers, we  describe  the  arrangement  as  harmony  in  paint- 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


181 


ing,  or  music  in  sound.  There  is  a close  parallelism 
between  painting  and  music,  extending  even  to  details. 
Each  is  susceptible  of  a major  and  minor  key ; in  paint- 
ing, the  major  being  light,  and  the  minor  shadow. 

Disregard  of  the  laws  of  composition  and  proportion, 
in  both,  results  in  discord  and  confusion. 

Repose,  pleasure,  and  pain  can  be  suggested  by  color 
as  by  sound.  Light  decomposed  results  in  color,  — red, 
blue,  and  yellow,  and  the  tints  between  them  : color, 
therefore,  is  decomposed  light.  The  proportion  of  pure 
color  to  produce  light  is  yellow  (3),  red  (5),  blue  (8)  ; 
and  the  fusion  of  these,  seen  in  a humming-top  or  disk 
revolving  at  great  speed,  produces  a near  approximation 
to  white. 

The  table  of  colors  suggesting  the  proportion  and 
harmony  of  the  principal  is  not  without  use,  consider- 
ing them  as  elements  of  ornament.  That  very  generally 
accepted  is  as  follows  : — 

Colors  are  divided  into  primaries,  secondaries,  ter- 
tiaries,  tints,  hues,  neutrals,  shades. 

Primaries  . . Original  and  Simple  . Yellow,  Red,  Blue. 

Secondaries  . . ( Mixtures  and  Compound,  Purple,  Green,  Orange. 

Tertiaries  . • ( “ “ Citrine,  Russet,  Olive. 

These  harmonize  in  the  following  proportions  of  sur- 
face, purity  being  taken  for  granted  : — 

S3.  Yellow,  ( 5.  Red,  ( 8.  Blue,  Harmony  of  Primaries. 

13.  Purple,  * -1  11.  Green,  * -j  8.  Orange,  “ “ Secondaries 

19.  Citrine,  (21.  Russet,  ( 24.  Olive,  “ “Tertiaries. 

Where  two  colors  are  used,  the  primary  and  second- 
ary, with  neutrals,  black,  white,  and  gold  ; where  three, 
the  primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary,  with  the  neutrals,  — 
will  be  found  to  produce  harmony.  It  will  be  seen  that 


* Harmony  of  complementaries. 


182 


ART  EDUCATION. 


three  of  yellow  harmonizes  with  its  secondary  purple  in 
the  proportion  resulting  from  the  admixture  of  the  re- 
maining primaries:  thus  red  5,  blue  8,  produces  purple  13. 
Three  of  yellow,  therefore,  harmonizes  with  thirteen  of 
purple.  The  same  holds  good  of  the  harmonic  propor- 
tion of  the  other  primaries  and  secondaries  ; also,  that 
a secondary,  as  green,  being  taken,  the  tertiary  russet, 
which  will  be  required  to  balance  it,  is  determined  by 
the  fusion  of  the  other  two  secondaries  ; viz.,  green  11, 
(purple  13,  orange  8),  russet  21,  and  so  on  with  the 
others.  A tint  is  the  admixture  of  color  with  white  ; 
a shade , its  admixture  with  black  ; a hue  is  one  primary 
tinged  by  another;  whilst  the  word  “tone”  is  applied 
to  the  general  effect  produced  by  all  the  colors,  used  in 
decoration  or  in  a picture,  upon  the  eye  simultaneously. 

The  position  of  these  colors  in  any  scheme  of  decora- 
tion, to  be  pleasant  in  appearance,  must  be  very  much 
dependent  on  their  actual  position  in  nature  ; for  though 
fashion,  caprice,  or  manner  may  induce  people  to  like 
what  is  unnatural,  — i.e.,  contrary  to  natural  laws, — 
Nature  is  stronger  than  fashion,  and  an  outrage  of  the 
principles  which  Nature’s  works  display  will  become  dis- 
tasteful to,  and  eventually  disgust,  even  the  most  artificial 
taste.  Now,  if  we  look  around  us  to  see  where  the  pri- 
maries, secondaries,  and  tertiaries  exist  in  the  largest  pro- 
portions and  the  most  generally  in  nature,  it  will  be  found 
that  in  t lie  sun,  the  firmament,  and  the  clouds,  tinged  by 
and  partially  absorbing  the  sun's  rays,  there  is  a pre- 
dominance of  yellow,  red,  and  blue,  the  primaries,  and  an 
absence  of  the  secondaries  and  tertiaries,  white  being 
the  prevailing  neutral.  That  suggests  primaries  and 
their  tints  for  ceiling  decoration,  and  horizontal  planes 
visible  from  beneath.  Midway  between  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  the  governing  colors  are  green,  purple, 
and  orange,  with  their  tints  and  shades,  as  seen  in 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


183 


foliage,  shadows,  fruits,  flowers,  birds,  and  insects,  re- 
lieved by  the  presence  of  the  primaries  in  very  small 
proportions : this  as  clearly  indicates  the  predominance 
of  the  medium  secondaries  for  wall  decoration  and 
vertical  planes.  The  earth  is  full  of  tertiaries,  — russet, 
citrine,  aud  olive,  and  their  hues  and  shades  varied  in 
myriads  of  combinations,  which  would  seem  to  point 
out  to  us  that  the  duller  colors  find  their  place  upon  the 
ground  we  walk  upon,  and  that  horizontal  planes  may 
be  so  colored  with  adherence  to  natural  laws. 

Without  reference  to  exact  proportion,  then,  it  may 
be  reasonably  said  that  Nature  places  her  most  brilliant 
colors  in  the  heavens  above  us,  her  least  brilliant  and 
most  neutralized  tints  on  the  earth  beneath  us  ; and  the 
colors  which  are  midway  between  lightness  and  dark- 
ness are  most  frequently  seen  midway  between  heaven 
and  earth.  Without  being  a theory  of  color  for  deco- 
rative purposes,  that  seems  to  me  to  suggest  a motive- 
principle,  controlled  necessarily  by  special  circumstances, 
of  locality,  requirements  of  purpose,  means  of  ornamen- 
tation, color  of  materials  used.  The  amount  of  neutral 
color  used,  as  black,  white,  and  gold,  may  modify  any 
very  prominent  colors  by  dividing  one  from  another,  — 
the  primary  from  its  complementary  tints  : but  pure  pri- 
maries or  secondaries  are  seldom  satisfactory  unalloyed, 
either  by  white  or  black,  or  modified  in  the  shape  of  hues  ; 
the  effect  of  this  reduction  in  brightness  being  a blending 
and  harmonizing  of  color,  producing  a sense  of  satis- 
faction, of  seeing  without  fatigue  to  the  eye.  External 
and  internal  decoration  will  necessarily  differ  in'  their 
character,  the  one  great  element  of  light  being  different 
in  the  two  cases  ; for  light  is  color,  and  color  is  light, 
applied  judiciously  with  knowledge  and  skill.  Where 
light  is  abundant,  as  it  is  externally,  then,  large  masses 
of  bright  color  are  unnecessary  and  out  of  place  ; for 


134 


ART  EDUCATION. 


Nature  uses  brilliant  color  very  sparingly,  generally 
upon  the  smallest  objects,  whether  in  the  animal  or 
vegetable  kingdoms. 

Perhaps  the  one  feature  which  is  most  apparent  in 
Greek  ornamental  design  is  its  fitness,  — an  entire  absence 
of  profusion  or  excess,  with  extreme  beauty  of  form  ; 
simplicity  and  severity  of  subject,  yet  the  highest  grace 
in  arrangement.  Ornamentation  comes  in  quite  as  a 
subordinate  feature  to  a general  conception  to  give  fuller 
expression  to  the  higher  features.  This  is  remarkably 
apparent  in  the  dresses  of  figures  on  the  Greek  vases ; the 
ornament  consisting  generally  of  a simple  running  pattern 
on  the  borders  and  edges  of  the  garment,  or  a delicate 
powdering ; the  ground  of  it  being  plain,  the  figure  be- 
ing principal,  the  drapery  next,  and,  last  of  all,  the  orna- 
ment on  the  garment.  The  figures  themselves,  as  being 
applied  to  a flat  surface,  are  in  one  tint  not  shaded  into 
roundness,  which  would  destroy  the  contour  of  the  vase 
itself. 

There  has  been  a great  return  to  this  pure  feeling,  in 
Europe,  in  many  branches  of  modern  manufacture,  but 
not  as  much  as  could  be  wished.  We  have  hardly  yet 
got  out  of  the  imitative  period,  so  that  the  longing  for 
purity  and  grace  takes  the  form  of  reproduction  rather 
than  originality.  Still,  that  is  infinitely  better  than  a 
low  type  of  originality ; for  it  may  lead  in  time,  as  the 
Gothic  revival  and  restoration  have,  to  an  education  of  a 
sound  sort,  upon  which  eventually  originality  may  be 
based.  The  only  fear  is,  that,  among  an  educated  people, 
imitation  is  sometimes  destructive  of  originality  ; and, 
when  it  does  occur,  it  is  often  as  a fashion  rather  than 
an  outward  expression  of  the  inward  refinement.  Peo- 
ple who  are  beating  about  for  a cast-off  raiment  are  not 
likely  to  get  one  which  fits  them  exactty ; but  beggars 
cannot  be  choosers,  and  any  thing  will  do  to  wear  until 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


185 


another  more  attractive  robe  can  be  assumed  to  hide  the 
art  nakedness  of  a sterile  age.  Occasionally,  then,  a 
Greek  garment  may  be  picked  up  and  worn  so  long  as 
the  fashion  remains  unchanged ; but  before  we  have 
felicitated  ourselves  all  round  that  daylight  is  coming, 
and  Hellenic  taste  is  in  the  ascendent,  some  booby  will 
have  discovered  a piquant  barbarism  somewhere,  which 
is  agonizingly  attractive  to  the  feelings  of  fashionable 
savages,  sometimes  restrained  into  temperance  by  fashion, 
but  who  will  bound  out  of  it  into  ochres  and  tattooings, 
as  a schoolboy  going  home  for  the  holidays  springs  back 
to  the  old  homestead.  That  happens  as  a consequence 
when  art  is  assumed,  not  generated.  Unless  cultivation 
in  art  is  bred  into  a people,  and  either  originated  by 
them  or  assimilated  by  slow  degrees,  developing  with 
their  increased  perceptions,  it  is  like  the  garment  rather 
than  the  individual.  It  is  of  little  use  vexing  ourselves 
about  and  straining  after  originality  of  style  in  architec- 
ture and  ornamental  art,  as  though  it  could  be  invented 
like  a sewing-machine,  or  drawn  up  by  a committee,  like 
resolutions,  preceded  by  a “ whereas  : ” when  people  are 
fit  to  receive  it,  the  condition  of  society  and  of  art  edu- 
cation will  be  such  that  the  creators  of  a new  style  will 
have  been  simultaneously  produced.  One  feature  of 
change  in  style  seems  usually  to  escape  the  observation 
of  those  who  most  sigh  for  it ; which  is,  that,  in  all  great 
changes  of  which  we  have  data,  it  has  been  very  gradual, 
— a process  of  growth,  not  an  alteration  of  principle,  be- 
ginning with  details,  and  finally  affecting  the  whole  con- 
ception. The  student  may  follow  out  this  operation  by 
closely  observing  the  development  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries ; 
noticing  how  the  enriched  mouldings  altered  one  by  one, 
how  piercings  for  windows  became  clustered  in  groups, 
and  finally  moulded  into  tracery  as  the  centuries  pro- 


186 


ART  EDUCATION. 


gressed.  The  same  process  is  visible  in  the  developments 
of  French  Renaissance. 

The  revival  of  Gothic,  with  its  multitude  of  subordi- 
nate arts,  has  undoubtedly  introduced  one  sterling  fea- 
ture into  modern  design,  — a desire  for  reality  and  an 
abhorrence  of  shams  ; which,  whilst  it  has  already  ban- 
ished much  of  the  pretentious  rubbish  that  afflicted 
industrial  art  for  so  long  a time  previous  to  that  revival, 
promises  even  more  beautiful  work  in  the  not  distant 
future.  Some  of  the  best  artists  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite 
School  in  England  have  become  designers  of  furniture ; 
and  that  manufactured  by  Morris,  Marshall,  & Co.  is 
sound,  honest  work,  such  as  might  be  expected  when 
painters  and  poets  like  Rossetti  and  Marshall  are  the  fore- 
men of  the  workshop.  The  revival  of  the  manufacture 
of  Venetian  table-glass  by  Dr.  Salviati,  in  his  factory  at 
Venice,  is  evidence  that  we  are  returning  to  mediaeval- 
ism  in  taste  and  almost  every  detail.  An  illustration 
borrowed  from  Mr.  Eastlake’s  admirable  book,  entitled 
“ Hints  on  Household  Taste,”  will  give  the  reader  an 
opportunity  of  comparing  Dr.  Salviati's  modern  repro- 
ductions with  original  specimens  of  Venetian  glass  which 
may  be  found  in  museums.  It  is  frequently  said,  that, 
in  the  one  specialty  of  glass,  modern  work  of  the  best 
kinds  is  superior  to  ancient  examples.  In  some  fea- 
tures, such  as  geometric  regularity,  clearness  of  metal, 
and  accuracy  of  cutting,  modern  glass  may  compare  well 
with  any  ancient  work ; but  in  other  features,  such  as 
color,  chastity  of  design,  variety  of  form,  and  use  of 
many  tints,  it  is  not  to  be  for  a moment  compared  to 
glass  which  has  been  produced  in  many  art  epochs  of 
past  ages. 

Design,  which  is  a translation  of  man's  thoughts  and 
aspirations  and  wants  into  the  language  of  form  or  color, 
must  of  necessity  depend  very  largely  upon  impressions 


Specimens  of  Modern  Venetian  Table-Glass,  manufactured  by  Salviati  &>  Co. 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


187 


derived  from  nature,  and  will  be  controlled  to  a certain 
extent  bjr  his  powers  of  expression.  The  rudeness  or 
conventionality  of  barbarous  art  springs  probably  from 
undeveloped  art  powers ; and  repetition,  creating  manner, 
perpetuates  imperfections,  until,  associated  in  regular 
sequences,  they  become  accepted  as  styles.  Processes  of 
work,  and  character  of  material,  will  also  control  the 
nature  of  design.  A great  distinction,  however,  may 
be  drawn  between  the  conventionality  of  barbarism  and 
the  conventionality  of  style ; the  first  being  the  result 
of  immature  art  power,  and  the  second  of  mature  choice. 

The  naturalistic  in  design  is  the  imitation  of  natural 
forms,  with  most  of  their  peculiarities,  to  create  orna- 
mental effects ; whilst  the  conventional  treatment  ad- 
heres to  general  forms  and  principles  of  nature  as  a 
motive,  omitting  unimportant  details  and  individual 
peculiarities,  thus  producing  a generalization  or  type- 
form  of  ornament  based  upon  first  principles. 

An  imitative  natural  treatment  of  design  will  be 
found  to  gratify  the  tastes  of  the  young  and  the  igno- 
rant, as  it  does  also  that  of  the  savage,  and  the  roue 
worn-out  taste  of  a frivolous  or  luxurious  age.  Nature, 
when  simply  copied  as  ornament,  suggests  the  incapacity 
of  the  designer,  as  well  as  his  ignorance  of  historical 
methods ; nature  conventionalized  is  evidence  both  of 
knowledge  and  originality,  and  in  all  industrial  art  will 
be  found  adapted  to  its  requirements,  and  satisfying  to 
the  most  refined  perceptions.  In  fine  art,  as  distinguished 
from  industrial  art,  exactly  the  reverse  holds  good  ; con- 
ventionality suggesting  mannerism  and  academic  stiff- 
ness, whilst  nature  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  direct  source 
and  subject  of  the  true  artist’s  work. 

The  symbolic  and  aesthetic  treatments  of  ornament 
are  also  phases  of  design  which  display  distinct  features  ; 
the  former  being  subordinated  to  or  controlled  by  reli- 


188 


ART  EDUCATION. 


gion  or  sentiment,  and  made  to  convey  its  axioms ; whilst 
aesthetic  ornament  lias  reference  to  neither,  and  attempts 
to  display  only  its  own  intrinsic  beauty. 

Power  to  design  seems  to  be  incommunicable  ; because 
in  proportion  as  the  motive  or  inspiration  is  conveyed 
from  one  to  another,  it  results  in  reproduction  rather 
than  originality.  The  infinite  resources  of  nature  in 
the  two  directions  of  form  and  color,  and  the  laws  upon 
which  they  are  displayed,  constitute  one  portion  of  the 
study  of  design;  the  application  or  disregard  of  those 
laws  in  the  works  of  those  who  have  gone  before  us,  so 
far  as  we  can  now  ascertain  them,  is  the  second  part: 
thus  we  acquire  a knowledge  of  natural  principles  and 
their  historical  treatment ; for  the  surest  foundation  of 
originality  is  extensive  knowledge  combined  with  great 
executive  power  and  imagination,  which,  if  the  neces- 
sary creative  impulse  should  seize  upon,  may  result  in 
the  conception  of  original  works.  The  only  instruction, 
therefore,  that  can  be  given  to  the  student  of  design, 
likely  to  be  of  use  to  him,  will  be  to  direct  his  atten- 
tion to  natural  laws  and  beauties,  and  to  analyze  with 
him  the  peculiarities  of  standard  examples  of  good 
design,  — generally  accepted  specimens  which  exhibit 
the  qualities  of  adaptation  to  purpose,  skilfulness  of 
treatment,  and  a pure  imagination. 

The  existence  of  much  of  the  bad  design  we  see, 
when  much  has  been  attempted,  arises  as  frequently 
from  the  absence  of  education,  as  from  inherent  bad 
taste.  What  we  want  to  bring  about  is  a sound  and 
practical  art  education,  which  will  make,  from  its  com- 
prehension of  first  principles,  intelligent  and  consistent 
design  possible : and  then  we  may  hope  that  the  diffu- 
sion of  this  education  generally  will  cause  good  design 
to  become  a necessity. 

The  alliance  of  science  and  art  in  the  factory  and 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


189 


workshop  is  of  great  importance,  infusing  an  intellec- 
tual fibre  into  efforts  of  the  imagination,  which  they 
sometimes  lack.  The  harmony  of  color,  a feature  of 
consequence  in  design  for  woven  or  printed  fabrics,  is, 
both  as  regards  proportion  and  hue,  as  scientific  a prob- 
lem as  it  is  an  artistic  one  ; whilst  the  discovery  of  new 
tints,  and  their  chemical  effect  on  each  other  (both  of 
influence  in  design),  are  purely  scientific  problems, 
which  the  designer  would  be  the  stronger  for  compre- 
hending. Some  of  the  loveliest  lustres  and  tints  have 
been  discovered  in  examining  microscopically  the  shells 
or  wings  of  insects  ; and  quaint  colors  on  manufactured 
goods,  which  have  startled  us  sometimes  by  their  origi- 
nality and  novelty,  have  been  copied  literally  from  the 
glittering  armor  of  a beetle.  Scientific  knowledge  and 
observation,  especially  of  tire  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  is  an  excellent  preparation  for  successful 
designing,  to  which,  if  we  add  skill  in  drawing  and  a fer- 
tile imagination,  we  indicate  the  necessary  characteristics 
of  the  creative  artist.  In  manj^  places  an  idea  prevails, 
that,  if  a man  or  a woman  lias  not  skill  or  imagination 
enough  to  become  an  artist,  it  is  better  to  become 
a designer;  in  other  words,  that  the  weaker  vessels 
of  either  sex,  who  cannot  pass  through  the  fine-art  fur- 
nace, should  be  prepared,  as  coarser  clay  at  a lower  tem- 
perature, for  the  more  ignoble  occupation  of  pattern- 
drawers  for  the  factories.  Such  a delusion  must  inevi- 
tably result  in  impoverished  and  miserable  design  ; and 
the  work  so  produced  contrasts  as  darkness  to  light 
with  the  conceptions  of  Durer,  Flaxman,  or  Rossetti.  It 
is  from  those  who  fail  in  art  that  we  get  designs  origi- 
nating  in  the  kaleidoscope,  and,  when  that  resource  fails, 
imitations  of  natural  leaves  or  flowers  as  plucked  from 
the  roadside,  or  arranged  to  use  up  a surplus  stock  of 
color  in  the  manufacturer’s  stock-room.  Over  such  de- 


190 


ART  EDUCATION. 


signers  the  enterprising  manufacturer  rules  with  a rod 
of  iron  ; and  his  monotonous  cry  is,  “ Make  me  something 
attractive,  that  will  sell : never  mind  about  principles  ; ” 
and  thus  low  taste  is  perpetuated  where  once  it  is  in 
existence. 

It  is  not  overstating  the  case  to  say  that  the  designer, 
like  the  poet  or  the  inventor,  needs  all  the  knowledge 
and  all  the  skill  of  other  men,  and  a glorious  faculty  in 
addition,  — creative  power  ; and  we  know  that  it  is  given 
but  to  few  to  possess  all  the  combinations  of  natural  and 
acquired  powers  in  the  proportions  which  lead  up  to 
originality  in  art,  whether  it  be  in  poetry,  music,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  or  architecture.  For  there  are  few  who 
can  bear  the  strain  of  long-continued  and  constant  dis- 
cipline, which  either  the  love  or  the  ambition  of  great- 
ness requires  from  those  who  are  to  become  creators. 
Genius  has  been  defined  as  the  union  of  the  desire  and 
the  strength  to  do  any  amount  of  work  ; and  it  is  curi- 
ous to  remember  how  many  men  who  have  achieved  the 
distinction  of  being  considered  geniuses  seem  to  have 
been  impelled  to  labor  incessantly,  when  all  ordinary 
motive  for  labor  as  labor  had  long  passed  away.  We 
have  but  to  remember,  one  by  one,  the  master-spirits  of 
every  age,  and  judge  them  by  a common  standard,  to 
find  that  the  difference  between  them  and  common  men 
is,  that  they  have  been  “ in  labors  more  abundant.” 

I should  not  be  surprised  if  some  skilful  statistician 
were  to  prove  that  the  gi'eatest  artist  had  painted  the 
most  pictures  ; the  greatest  sculptor  had  modelled  the 
largest  number  of  statues;  the  greatest  poet  had  writ- 
ten rhore  poems  than  any  other ; that  the  foremost 
orator  had  spoken  the  most  frequently  ; the  greatest 
warrior  fought  the  maximum  number  of  battles;  the 
greatest  musical  composer  had  written  more  pieces  than 
many  of  his  compeers  put  together;  the  wealthiest  self- 


ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


191 


made  man  had  worked  two  hours  per  diem  for  the  one 
hour  or  fifteen  minutes  occupied  in  labor  of  any  sort  by 
the  majority  of  human  beings : for  that  would  be  only 
supplying  a wholesale  explanation  of  phenomena  which 
we  see  every  day  happening  under  our  e}res,  and  in 
average  cases  requiring  no  explanation. 

This  much  we  know  by  experience  of  the  past,  — that, 
to  be  permanently  pleasing,  design  must  be  based  on 
principles  which  are  founded  upon  natural  laws,  and  are 
therefore  unchangeable  ; that  it  must  generalize  its  sub- 
jects when  the  work  to  be  performed  is  simply  orna- 
mental and  subordinate,  rather  than  as  fine  art  and 
principal ; that  it  must  proceed  from  a learned  and  culti- 
vated taste,  expressed  by  matured  skill,  and  cannot  result 
from  accidental  combinations  of  vulgar  elements  imper- 
fectly displayed : moreover,  that  if,  in  the  final  test  of 
judgment,  design  neither  increases  the  beauty  of  an 
object  by  its  construction  or  its  ornament  without  sac- 
rificing its  use,  nor  adds  to  the  sense  of  satisfaction 
either  of  the  cultivated  or  uncultivated  taste,  it  is  imma- 
ture power  wastefully  expended  upon  creating  imper- 
fect work,  which  should  have  been  employed  in  refining 
itself  from  its  own  grossness,  — insuring  its  own  develop- 
ment in  some  way  more  profitable  to  its  possessor,  and 
less  disagreeable  to  others,  than  in  permanently  record- 
ing its  own  incapacity. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SURFACE  DECORATION. 

QURFACE  decoration  — the  covering-up  of  one 
kJ  material  by  another  to  increase  the  beauty,  or  en- 
tirely to  remedy  the  want  of  attractiveness  in  it  — is 
purely  a human  invention.  We  have  no  grounds  for 
supposing  that  birds  and  animals  are  ever  influenced  by 
the  desire  to  make  their  homes  beautiful,  but  rather 
to  construct  them  well,  and  make  them  comfortable. 
Though  acting  from  natural  impulses  only,  and  uncon- 
scious of  the  beautiful  nests  they  build,  birds  weave 
sticks  and  grasses  in  lovely  but  strong  labyrinths,  and 
line  them  with  soft  feathers  and  hairs,  and  delicate 
mosses,  that  their  young  may  be  protected  from  climatic 
and  other  dangers.  Strength  externally,  comfort  inter- 
nally, are  the  two  principles  of  Nature’s  architects. 
Beauty  resulting  is  accident.  To  create  the  edifice  first, 
to  make  it  minister  to  comfort  and  security  secondly,  are 
instincts  man  shares  with  many  creatures  besides  his 
fellow-men  ; but  to  add  to  these  instincts  another,  which 
does  not  of  necessity  spring  out  of  them  — viz.,  that  of 
desiring  to  secure  beauty  — is  peculiarly  human. 

I wish  it  were  possible,  within  the  scope  of  this  book, 
to  illustrate,  by  engravings  in  color  or  form,  the  develop- 
ment of  this  mental  want  through  the  ages  and  centuries. 
A subject  particularly  susceptible  of  illustration,  and 
not  very  interesting  without,  has  to  be  spoken  of  as  a 

192 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


193 


question  of  abstract  principle  ; and  thus  I am  compelled 
to  call  upon  your  memories,  your  taste,  and  your  reason, 
to  illustrate  the  remarks  made. 

Comparatively  a stranger  in  this  country,  I am  as  yet 
unaware  of  its  resources  either  in  good  taste  or  bad 
taste  ; and  I should  hardly  like  to  engrave  a paperhang- 
ing or  a carpet  of  villanous  design  which  I had  borrowed 
for  the  purpose  of  a man  who  had  it  to  sell.  Imagine 
my  calling  upon  a highly-respectable  firm  of  dry-goods 
merchants  in  Washington  Street,  and  requesting  the 
loan  of  a few  yards  of  carpets,  curtains,  furniture  cover- 
ing, and  such-like,  to  illustrate  this  chapter,  and  finding, 
as  I don’t  doubt  I should  find,  a kindly  disposition  to 
assist  me.  Being  necessarily  interested  in  the  subject 
of  furniture  and  decoration,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  firm 
is  disposed  to  see  what  I have  to  say  on  the  subject, 
especially  as  the  firm  so  cheerfully  contributed  the  ex- 
amples. He  reads  this  chapter,  and  sees  engraved  as 
an  illustration  the  goods  he  has  lent  me,  and  sees,  also, 
I advert  to  the  outrage  of  good  taste  in  carpets,  and 
refer  to  an  example  of  execrable  design  which  is  illus- 
trated ; analyze  it,  and  show  how  impossible  it  is  for  any 
room  to  be  well  furnished  which  has  such  a monstrosity 
in  it.  All  this  time  my  kind  friend  has  been  consider- 
ing the  baseness  of  my  conduct  in  thus  betraying  his 
confidence,  and  wonders  also,  if  I convert  the  public  to 
my  views,  what  he  is  going  to  do  with  the  remaining 
thousand  yards  of  that  pattern,  now  on  sale,  at  three 
dollars  a yard,  in  his  store  on  Washington  Street.  Now, 
that  is  the  kind  of  difficulty  I should  meet  with,  and 
cannot  very  well  get  over ; and  so  I must  appeal  to  the 
indulgence  of  my  readers,  and  tell  them,  if  I sometimes 
seem  abstract  and  dogmatic  in  my  views,  it  is  for  want 
of  the  power  to  convince  them  by  a selection  of  illus- 
trations, and  because  I do  not  want  to  appear  in  the 


194 


ART  EDUCATION. 


character  of  Judas  before  those  who  have  treated  me 
with  kindness. 

A gentleman  in  London  who  had  never  been  remarka- 
ble for  personal  beauty  — described  by  his  lady -friends 
as  being  very  plain,  and  by  his  male  acquaintances  as 
being  ugly  as  sin,  and  who,  as  a matter  of  fact,  had  been 
endowed  by  nature  with  the  physiognomy  of  a mediaeval 
gargoyle,  and  had  himself  contributed  to  it  the  expres- 
sion of  a thief — was  one  day  accosted  by  an  artist  of  emi- 
nence, who,  though  a stranger  to  him,  said  that  he  had 
been  looking  out  for  the  gentleman  for  a long  while. 
“ Indeed ! ” said  Mr.  Ugly  Mug ; “ and  pray  for  what  pur- 
pose ? ” — “I  want  your  head  in  a picture  I am  painting,” 
said  the  artist:  “ I can’t  find  one  to  suit  me  ; and  some 
friends  of  yours  have  referred  me  to  you,  and  I now  see 
with  what  propriety.  Your  head  will  just  do  ; and  if 
you  will  sit  to  me  for  a portrait,  which  I may  copy  into 
my  picture,  the  original  sketch  shall  be  yours.”  With 
the  peculiar  vanity  which,  somehow  or  other,  often  char- 
acterizes plain  people  as  well  as  others,  the  gentleman 
felt  flattered,  and  gave  his  blushing  consent.  The  sketch 
was  made,  copied,  and  sent  home,  framed,  and  hung  in 
the  sanctum  sanctorum  of  the  cockney’s  house,  — his 
.dining-room.  And  thus  the  matter  would  have  ended 
pleasantly  for  all,  if  Mrs.  Ugly  Mug  had  not  one  day 
paid  a visit  to  the  Royal-Academy  exhibition,  where  she 
discovered  the  faithful  portrait  of  her  beloved  husband 
in  a large  and  important  picture,  playing  the  part  of 
Judas  Iscariot  in  a subject  entitled  “The  Traitor’s 
Kiss  ! ” Could  treachery  be  better  illustrated  ? 

Now,  I cannot  betray  those  who  would  assist  me  in 
that  way,  and  therefore  I must  do  without  illustrations. 

The  subject  of  our  consideration  is  Surface  Decora- 
tion ; and,  if  I treat  it  in  a superficial  manner,  you'must 
regard  it  as  consistent  with  its  name. 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


195 


That  innate  sense  in  human  beings,  to  which  I have 
referred,  of  requiring  that  not  only  shall  an  object 
be  useful,  but,  as  far  as  it  can  be  made,  beautiful 
also,  is  perhaps  more  thoroughly  displayed  in  what  may 
be  called  surface  decoration  than  in  any  other  form  of 
ornament,  because,  generally  speaking,  it  is  so  com- 
pletely an  addition  to,  and  forming  no  necessary  part  of, 
the  original  purpose  of  the  object  ornamented,  — a fea- 
ture added  to  it  to  satisfy  our  craving  after  the  beauti- 
ful, just  as  physically  we  sometimes  yearn  for  food. 

The  lowest  form  of  surface  ornament  is  a flat  coat  of 
one-colored  paint ; the  highest  form,  an  historical  pic- 
ture. In  the  same  way,  the  lowest  form  of  sculpture,  or 
relief  ornament,  is  a squared  stone  ; its  highest  develop- 
ment, an  ideal  statue. 

We  may  divide  the  general  subject  of  surface  decora- 
tion into  three  classes  : — 

1st,  Material. 

2d,  Manufacture. 

8d,  Applied  Ornament. 

The  first  comprehends  all  that  vast  field  of  ornament 
obtained  by  using  only  the  material  as  it  exists  in  nature 
for  the  purposes  of  ornament,  such  as  the  grain  of  wood 
or  the  color  of  stone  or  marble  in  its  dead  or  polished 
form.  Thus,  externally,  the  contrast  of  different-col- 
ored stones  and  marble,  or  encaustic  tiles,  irrespective 
of  the  general  design  in  form,  is  surface  decoration,  and 
in  very  many  respects  the  most  honest  and  faithful  of 
all  the  resources  of  ornament.  The  beautiful  color  of 
several  varieties  of  building-stone  as  well  as  marble,  to 
be  obtained  in  America,  and  its  use  on  some  important 
private  buildings,  has  been  productive  of  a thoroughly- 
satisfactory  effect.  Without  referring  to  the  question 
of  style  in  architectural  design,  I would  mention  the 


196 


ART  EDUCATION. 


new  hotel  at  the  corner  of  Bojdston  and  Tremont  Streets, 
and  the  new  house  of  Mr.  Brimmer  in  Beacon  Street, 
both  in  Boston,  as  illustrations  of  the  use  of  several  col- 
ors in  external  construction,  and  to  express  a hope  that 
the  experiment  may  be  persevered  with ; for  it  is  one 
way  of  solving  the  problem  of  how  to  get  color  exter- 
nally which  shall  be  permanent. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  practice  of  veneering,  with 
marble  fronts,  houses  which  are  built  of  brick  or  wood, 
is  a detestable  sham,  which  all  honest  men  should  avoid, 
as  they  would  a forged  check  or  a spurious  greenback. 

There  is  no  sound  constructiveness  in  such  work,  and 
oftentimes  it  makes  good  construction  difficult,  if  not 
impossible ; so  that  it  is  both  a sham  and  a peculiarlj’- 
dishonest  sham. 

Veneering  of  any  sort  is  a make-believe,  shuffliug  sort 
of  transaction,  — a thick-skinned  layer  of  respectability 
covering  the  carcass  of  a rogue,  — and  is  about  as  appro- 
priate as  the  wig  and  gown  of  a lord  chief-justice  would 
be  on  the  body  of  a London  pickpocket. 

Now,  we  find  on  examination  that  the  works  of  God 
are  not  so  built  up.  They  are  good  throughout,  from 
the  skin  to  the  marrow  ; not  surface  and  sham,  but  solid, 
like  that  grand  American  expression,  the  most  hopeful 
sign  in  the  language,  “ right  through,”  which  expresses 
a valuable  form  of  mind  and  an  honest  determination  of 
purpose. 

Any  one  who  has  seen  the  inside  of  a church,  not 
rough  built  and  then  plastered,  but  built  as  carefully 
internally  as  externally,  with  the  natural  color  of  the 
stone  showing  as  well  as  the  joints,  especially  if  the 
stone  be  sandstone  or  red  granite,  will  remember  how 
beautiful  the  effect  is,  — how  incomparably  superior  to 
paint  and  plaster,  — and  what  a feeling  of  reality  and 
comely  truthfulness  is  engendered  in  the  mind  of  the 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


197 


spectator.  I believe  that  in  public  buildings  the  age 
of  whitewash  and  plaster  is  passing  away,  and  that  the 
material,  whether  brick,  stone,  or  marble,  will  be  left  to 
form  the  background  of  any  added  sculpture  or  painted 
decoration. 

I have  found  that  in  one  specialty  there  is  more  good 
taste  shown  in  America  than  in  any  country  I have  yet 
visited ; and  it  comes  under  the  head  of  the  use  of  ma- 
terial in  surface  decoration.  I refer  to  the  preservation 
of  woodwork  from  paint  or  stain,  displaying  the  natural 
grain  of  the  wood  in  its  native  color.  That  is  a thor- 
oughly satisfactory  way  of  using  a constructive  as  a dec- 
orative agent,  true  in  principle,  and  more  ornamental 
than  any  method  of  disguising  it  by  paint  or  dye  for 
decorative  purposes. 

The  extreme  beauty  in  the  grain,  variety  in  color  and 
appearance,  of  American  woods,  points  to  an  unlimited 
field  of  ornamental  treatment,  — combinations  in  which 
harmony  shall  be  obtained  by  judicious  associations  of 
different-colored  woods,  and  variety  displayed  in  the 
contrast  of  their  grain  growth. 

Whatever  scientific  process  may  be  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  wood  may  be  resorted  to  without  destroy- 
ing its  beauty,  such  as  saturating  it  with  gelatine,  or  var- 
nishing it ; but  to  conceal  its  lovely  grain  or  destroy  its 
natural  color  by  a coarse  veneering  of  metallic  paint,  is 
a desecration. 

These  sources  of  ornament  only  apply  to  materials 
which  are  either  valuable  or  beautiful;  and  one  feature 
does  not  seem  to  me  to  be  sufficiently  appreciated,  viz., 
the  effect  produced  by  the  contrast  of  dead  and  polished 
surfaces  in  the  same  material.  This  is  noticeable  espe- 
cially in  granite  and  marble,  but  may  be  also  used  with 
effect  in  woodwork.  I am  gratified  to  see  that  wain- 
scoting in  oak  and  walnut  is  used  so  much  as  it  is,  and 


198 


ART  EDUCATION. 


becoming  popular,  both  because  it  makes  an  excellent 
background  for  pictures  and  other  art  works,  and  is  a 
handsome,  durable  method  of  covering  a wall.  Par- 
quetting,  or  inlaying  of  wood  in  ornamental  patterns  for 
flooring,  is  another  adaptation  of  wood,  not  apparently  so 
general  as  wainscoting,  but  essentially  legitimate  and 
effective  as  a means  of  decoration.  It  should  accom- 
pany wainscoting  to  make  a room  complete  in  one  fea- 
ture. 

2.  Manufacture.  — The  next  kind  of  surface  decora- 
tion is  that  made  by  the  process  of  manufacture,  in 
which  the  features  of  make  are  displayed  ; as  in  weaving 
in  one  color,  lace-making,  mat  and  basket  making,  and 
embroidery. 

In  this  class,  design  becomes  most  apparent ; for  here 
is  no  addition  of  ornament,  — the  distinction  being  that 
design  includes  the  whole  art  character  of  the  object 
constructed  as  part  of  the  idea ; whilst  ornament  only 
is  something  applied  to  it  after  construction,  to  increase 
its  beauty. 

The  amount  of  ornamental  arrangement  of  which 
such  processes  as  mat  and  basket  making  are  suscep- 
tible is  very  slight ; but  their  constructional  features 
are  capable  of  very  great  variety.  The  aim  is  not  high  ; 
for,  in  order  of  development,  this  class  of  work  comes 
next  in  progress  to  the  display  of  the  natural  charac- 
teristics of  the  material,  in  which  neither  design  nor 
ornament  euters  at  all,  except  by  selection  and  juxta- 
position of  different  colors  and  forms.  Nevertheless,  so 
coarse  a material  as  wooden  chips  or  twigs,  or  grass,  may 
be  made,  and  is  made,  the  vehicle  of  much  refined  taste  ; 
and,  where  too  much  is  not  attempted,  there  will  be 
found  beautiful  effects  produced.  As  a branch  of  in- 
dustry of  an  essentially  useful  kind,  which  has  not  }’et 
had  the  benefit  of  much  art  influence,  I regard  it 


Parquetry  Floors. 


XV. 


Parquetry  Floor  Borders, 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


199 


as  capable  of  great  development,  and  believe,  if  some 
education  in  art  were  given  to  those  engaged  upon  the 
process,  new  combinations,  especially  pleasing,  would 
be  originated.  Among  the  manjr  treacherous  shams 
to  which  the  progress  of  inventiveness  has  introduced  us, 
this  unimportant  little  industry  has  retained  its  honesty 
and  its  noble  simplicity. 

V ery  similar  in  their  essential  character  are  the  two 
more  important  subjects  of  muslin  and  lace  making, 
each  deriving  its  peculiar  ornamentation  from  the  mode 
of  manufacture  ; but  from  their  more  general  use,  and 
the  far  higher  purposes  to  which  they  are  applied,  they 
have  absorbed  at  all  times  some  of  the  highest  skill  in 
design.  It  may  also  be  said  that  lace  and  muslin  manu- 
factures have  been  made  the  vehicle  of  much  of  the 
very  worst  and  most  atrocious  taste  in  design. 

I dare  not  trust  myself  to  enter  into  the  subject  of 
hand-made  lace : it  is  too  attractive  to  me,  and  capable 
of  such  a lengthy  and  interesting  treatment,  that  I must 
avoid  it,  — confining  myself  to  machine-made  lace  in 
the  form  of  curtains  and  garments. 

Lace  is  said  to  have  originated  by  withdrawing  certain 
threads  in  regular  order  from  a piece  of  linen,  and  then 
stitching  the  remaining  threads  together.  All  lace,  at 
first,  was  made  by ‘hand,  and  worked  with  the  needle; 
and  the  different  points  — as  point  d’Alencon,  Venetian, 
Honiton,  and  Irish  point  — have  been  preserved  to  this 
day  in  the  localities  which  originally  produced  them  ; 
but  their  peculiarities  have  been  so  successfully  caught 
and  expressed  by  machinery,  that,  at  the  present  time, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  branches  of  art  manufacture 
is  lace-making.  If  the  origination  of  the  process  be 
borne  in  mind,  and  that  an  opaque  linen  surface  was 
perforated  by  the  withdrawal  of  part  of  the  fabric,  leav- 
ing also  a part  remaining,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first 


200 


ART  EDUCATION. 


element  of  lace  is  semi-transparenc}^ ; at  first,  of  regular- 
shaped omissions  of  material,  and  secondly,  in  the  con- 
version of  the  remaining  material  into  definite  forms 
in  one  color ; so  that,  while  the  only  art  treatment  of 
which  it  is  capable  is  the  contrast  of  open  spaces  with 
masses  of  closed  stitches,  the  process  of  manufacture 
under  skilful  designers  has  been  made  to  express  very 
lovely  combinations  of  forms.  Curves  can  only  be  in- 
dicated by  little  square  notches,  each  the  size  of  a stitch  ; 
but  that  does  not  limit  the  direction,  nor  mar  the  pro- 
portion, of  the  curves  expressed. 

The  most  general  use  to  which  lace  is  put  is  that 
of  curtains,  and  in  this  the  best  and  worst  taste  is  dis- 
played. A material  which  hangs  in  folds,  and  part  of 
whose  ornamentation  must  therefore  necessarily  be  hid- 
den, ought  to  be  so  designed  that  no  important  portion 
of  its  ornamental  treatment  shall  be  thus  concealed. 
That  seems  obvious : yet  many  designs  for  lace  curtains 
are  composed  of  huge  and  barbarous  scrolls,  squandered 
irregularly  over  the  surface  as  if  by  accident,  half 
hidden  by  the  drapery  in  which  the  curtain  hangs ; 
immense  and  vulgar  bouquets  of  flowers,  in  which  not 
only  the  unsymmetrical  natural  flower  is  closety  copied, 
but  attempts  at  shading  are  made  by  relying  ou  the 
curtain  having  a dark  background,  and  making  the  parts 
requiring  shadow  to  be  more  open  than  the  rest.  All 
such  w<  rk  is  a gross  outrage  upon  the  material,  and  a 
labored  effort  after  something  which  is  meretricious 
and  unattainable.  It  is  manifest  that  a geometrically- 
constructed  fabric  should  have,  as  a basis  of  ornamen- 
tation, forms  which  can  be  expressed  geometrically 
without  much  injury  to  their  distinctness.  Also,  that 
when  clearness  or  semi-transparency  is  required  as  a 
quality  in  the  character  of  the  manufactured  article, 
designs  which  very  much  cover  the  surface,  and  destroy 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


201 


the  transparency,  are  not  adapted.  The  best  designs  for 
curtains  are  those  which  consist  largely  of  an  enriched 
border,  founded  on  some  light  and  graceful  natural  foli- 
age forms,  in  which  the  outline  is  characteristic ; the 
body  of  the  curtain  being  slightly  powdered  over  with 
some  detail  of  the  plant  used,  such  as  a conventional 
treatment  of  the  flower  or  bud  of  the  subject  which  forms 
the  border.  I need  hardly  say,  that  in  this  branch  of 
surface  decoration,  and  indeed  of  all  ornamentation, 
nature  should  be  adapted  to  the  purposes  and  require- 
ments of  art,  not  copied  literally  ; for  attempts  at  copying 
nature  by  the  clumsiness  of  any  manufacturing  process 
must  inevitably  end  in  failure,  whilst  the  decorative 
character  of  the  work  is  thereby  limited  and  destroyed : 
a chaste  conventionality,  which  displays  ail  the  prime 
characteristics  of  the  form  chosen,  is  more  satisfying  to 
the  refined  perception,  and  results  in  a purer  ornamental 
effect.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  features  of  hand- 
made lace,  the  snow-point,  — imitated  from  the  lovely 
form  of  snow-crystals, — has  seldom  been  attempted  in 
machine-made  lace  ; yet  considering  the  whiteness  of 
lace,  its  suggestiveness  of  coolness,  the  geometrical 
forms  of  snow-crystals  would  be  excellently  adapted  for 
imitation,  on  account  of  their  great  intrinsic  beauty, 
boundless  variety,  and  suitability  both  in  shape  to  the 
manufacture  and  similarity  in  color  to  the  material  used. 
If  we  could  look  from  our  heated  summer  apartments, 
through  the  gauzy  fleeciness  of  white  snow-crystals,  to 
the  blazing  outside  atmosphere,  it  would  be  suggestive 
of  arctic  luxuries  at  a time  when  melting  moments  most 
afflict  us. 

Thus  a recognition  of  the  nature  of  the  material  in 
which  lace  is  wrought,  and  the  adaptation  of  the  treat- 
ment to  suit  it,  would  achieve  more  satisfactory  results 
than  any  effort  to  ignore  or  supersede  the  exigencies  of 


202 


ART  EDUCATION. 


manufacture.  I have  spoken  more  fully  of  lace  as  an 
element  of  refinement  than  I should  have  done,  because 
its  extreme  beauty  seems  to  me  to  be  overlooked.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  subjects  susceptible  of  the  highest  deco- 
rative treatment,  without  losing  its  utilitarian  charac- 
ter, and,  whether  in  furniture  or  garments,  is  a sign  of 
refinement  and  elegance.  In  the  most  sacred  offices  of 
the  Church  and  the  most  exalted  secular  ceremonials 
of  past  ages,  lace  and  embroidery  have  been  prominent 
as  elements  of  enrichment ; and  for  my  part  I should  be 
glad  to  see  the  revival  of  the  demand  for  hand-made 
lace,  which  cannot  lie  produced  by  machinery,  and  for 
machine-made  lace  of  the  highest  class  which  can  be  so 
produced ; for  the  two  kinds  are  quite  distinct  in  their 
character,  and  appeal  to  a different  range  of  sympathies. 
There  is  the  same  sort  of  feeling  about  a piece  of  hand- 
made lace  as  there  is  in  the  manuscript  of  an  author ; 
whilst  about  machine-made  work  we  have  that  sort  of 
affection  that  we  feel  for  a good  edition  of  his  works.  I 
have  seen  an  altar  draped  in  lace,  which  was  made  by 
titled  English  ladies  during  years  of  leisure  more  than 
a hundred  years  ago,  and  regarded  it  as  the  converse  of 
the  proposition,  “ the  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them, 
the  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones  ; ” for  there  the 
pious  labor  that  women  had  engaged  in  lived  after 
them  ; whilst  the  evil  they  had  been  guilty  of  has  long 
since  smouldered  with  their  bones. 

In  this  age  of  rapid  life,  almost  insect  life,  which  is 
gay  and  thoughtless,  in  which  men  seldom  care  to  pay 
onwards  to  posterity  the  good  they  have  received  from 
their  ancestry,  any  transmission  of  refinement,  whether 
in  thoughts  or  tangible  things,  is  a virtue.  We  ought 
to  encourage  the  use  of  leisure,  which  is  a bequest  from 
our  forefathers,  or  a present  from  our  friends,  in  useful, 
permanent  work,  which  shall  transmit  our  best  qualities 
to  posterity,  and  save  for  them  our  arts. 


SURFACE  DECORAT/ON. 


203 


Among'  the  several  kinds  of  surface  decoration  must  be 
classed  the  art  of  embroidery,  by  needlework,  — such  as 
the  tapestry  of  old,  and  the  working  of  altar-cloths  and 
of  rich  garments,  whether  sacred  or  secular.  That  was 
work  for  women  of  leisure,  and  had  all  the  true  charac- 
teristics of  good  art  workmanship:  it  was  skilful,  intel- 
lectual, and  permanent.  Which  means  that  it  required 
training  and  education,  employed  the  mind  as  well  as 
the  hand,  and  was  an  honest  thing,  made  to  last  rvhen  it 
was  done  ; and  was  handsome,  useful,  and  beautiful  into 
the  bargain,  — mental  and  physical  labor  judiciously 
expended  and  invested. 

I am  not  able  to  state  from  my  own  experience 
whether  there  are  any  people  of  leisure  now  ; because, 
though  I am  constantly  told  by  all  those  with  whom  I 
come  in  contact,  that  they  “ have  just  twice  as  much  to 
do  as  they  can  possibly  get  through,”  I never  have 
yet  found  the  happy  individual  who  was  languishing  for 
an  occupation,  unless  his  bread  depended  upon  it  and 
it  couldn’t  be  found.  Nevertheless,  I notice  in  this 
country,  as  in  the  old  one,  periodical  attacks  of  social 
inflammation  of  a benevolent  sort,  which  breaks  out 
into  eruptions,  called  “ Fairs.”  That  is  the  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  there  being  leisure  somewhere  in  the  past ; 
and,  as  fairs  are  hereditary  affections,  it  points  in  the 
direction  of  there  being  leisure  now,  and  likely  to  come 
in  the  future.  The  great  argument  in  support  of  fairs  is, 
that  they  furnish  a benevolent  occupation  for  those  who 
cannot  give  money  to  good  objects,  but  can  give  time  ; 
and,  therefore,  working  for  a stall  is  a practical  solu- 
tion of  how  to  make  the  best  of  both  worlds.  Assum- 
ing, then,  from  external  evidence,  that  the  piles  of  objects 
on  the  stalls  of  a fair  represent  so  much  leisure  time, 
occupied  for  good  purposes,  — the  product  of  busy  and 
delicate  fingers  actuated  by  kind  and  generous  hearts,  — 


204 


ART  EDUCATION. 


I would  ask  whether  the  kind  of  way  in  which  the  labor 
is  expended,  and  the  sort  of  objects  which  most  com- 
monly are  produced,  fairly  represent  what  should  be 
the  skill,  taste,  and  knowledge  of  the  educated  feminine 
leisure  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  is  to  be  the  final 
expression  of  its  powers. 

I know  that  I am  treading  on  very  delicate  ground, 
and  do  not  wish  to  reach  forth  my  unhallowed  hand  to 
touch  this  ark  of  the  covenant  unadvisedly,  or  rashly  to 
interfere  with  this  sacred  privilege  of  female  solitude 
and  leisure ; and  were  it  not  that  the  ground  is  some- 
what familiar  to  me,  and  that  I have  modestly  touched 
this  ark  before,  and  yet  live,  I would  not  dare  to  venture 
on  either  asking  a question  about  it  or  making  a sugges- 
tion thereon. 

But  I will  ask  whether  it  might  not  be  possible  for 
some  leisure  to  he  spent  on  work  which  will  outlive  its 
authors,  and  be  utterly  noble  exercise  for  all  the  facul- 
ties which  have  been  conferred  on  a human  being. 

o ^ 

Would  it  not  be  equally  interesting  as  an  amusement, 
and  valuable  as  an  investment,  if  such  subjects  as  water- 
color  painting,  and  good  wholesome  embroidery,  be  un- 
dertaken by  ladies  in  their  leisure,  both  in  their  ways 
noble  surface  decoration,  instead  of  what  is  usually 
done  for  fairs  ? I would  say  that  the  Bayeux  tapestry 
is  a more  creditable  and  valuable  production  than  the 
ephemeral  work  of  modern  days.  The  Berlin-wool  pat- 
terns, the  knitting,  netting,  tatting,  and  crocheting  of 
this  age,  are  not  worthy  of  the  serious  attention  of  ac- 
complished women,  and  I believe  they  are  less  practised 
here  than  elsewhere  ; but  I want  to  see  them  replaced 
entirely  by  work  of  a character  higher  artistically  and 
more  durable,  and  in  the  best  sense  useful.  Art  work, 
intended  for  useful  purposes,  and  embarked  upon  a ma- 
terial which  will  be  easily  destroyed  or  rapidly  wear  out. 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


205 


is  waste  of  life.  Two  kinds  of  needlework  appear  to  me 
to  be  equally  noble,  — plain  work  for  a righteous  pur- 
pose, such  as  making  clothing  for  the  poor  or  afflicted  ; 
and  the  most  elaborate  embroidery  or  lace  work,  made 
with  the  object  of  draping  the  walls  of  a sanctuary  or  a 
hall  of  justice,  to  tell  the  story  of  great  deeds,  and  to 
encourage,  by  enshrining,  the  qualities  of  morality  and 
patriotism.  Both  of  these  are  like  the  box  of  precious 
ointment,  not  wasted  but  consecrated,  by  the  use  to 
which  they  are  applied. 

The  terrible  tendency  in  these  latter  days  is,  that  we 
are  becoming  like  the  machines  we  have  invented,  — 
fast,  thoughtless,  and  monotonous.  Year  by  year  our 
labor  becomes  less  original  in  its  individual  character, 
and  hand-work  is  being  supplanted  by  machine-work. 
Successful  imitation  is  a current  coin : original  produc- 
tion is  as  scarce  as  spade-guineas  or  twenty-dollar 
pieces,  which  we  hang  on  our  watchguards  or  frame  as 
a^  picture  to  show  our  children  what  those  ancient  gen- 
tlemen, our  forefathers,  did  in  the  way  of  money. 

Any  kind  of  original  hand-work,  not  made  in  dozens 
or  supplied  by  the  gross,  is  a comfort  now ; and  even 
the  children  of  past  ages  may  teach  us  a lesson  in  this 
respect  in  the  matter  of  needlework. 

There  used  to  be,  and  1 hope  will  be  again,  an  old- 
fashioned  method  of  embroidery  practised  in  the  agri- 
cultural districts  of  England,  as  both  an  education  and 
recreation  of  small  female  fingers,  and  which,  sooner  or 
later,  every  germinating  lady  of  twelve  years  or  there- 
abouts had  to  go  through.  It  was  called  “ making  a 
sampler."  Now,  a sampler  was  a compound  production  ; 
getting  its  name,  I suspect,  from  its  containing  sam- 
ples, or  ensamples,  of  many  things.  In  size  it  varied 
from  nine  inches  square  to  twenty-four  inches  square. 
It  was  worked  by  the  needle  with  different-colored  cot- 


206 


ART  EDUCATION. 


tons,  or  threads,  on  a groundwork  of  linen  or  cotton  or 
canvas.  The  subjects  worked  varied,  but  always  in- 
cluded the  alphabet  and  the  numerals,  often  in  capital 
and  small  letters ; and  the  explanation  of  their  raison 
d'etre , given  to  me  by  an  aged  dame  in  a wayside  village- 
school,  whose  spectacled  eyes  were  dim,  and  whose  fin- 
gers were  horny,  was,  that  such  practice  was  necessaiy 
“ for  every  female  to  enable  her  to  mark  clothes  and 
table-linen.”  But  that  was  not  the  whole  scope  of  the 
sampler.  The  occasion  was  seized  to  achieve  great  tri- 
umphs in  embroidery : for  the  alphabet  and  nine  figures 
only  took  up  a small  portion  of  the  surface  ; and  the  rest 
was  adorned  by  illustrated  stories,  or  imitations  of  many 
created  things, — sometimes,  I am  bound  to  say,  with- 
out serious  outrage  of  that  commandment  which  says, 
“ Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  likeness  of  any 
thing  that  is  in  heaven  above,  or  that  is  in  the  earth 
beneath,  or  that  is  in  the  water  under  the  earth.” 

Yet  t lie  work  was  good,  honest,  and  especially  perma- 
nent work ; for  in  an  English  national  exhibition  I 
have  seen  samplers  with  dates  on,  showing  them  to  have 
been  done  two  hundred  years  ago.  There  was  generally 
a handsome  border  made  up  of  zigzag  lines,  — Greek 
frets,  and  scrolls  and  leaves,  — often  of  extreme  beauty, 
and  always  of  excellent  workmanship;  but  the  greatest 
triumph  of  all  was  in  the  story  which  the  figures  repre- 
sented. There  would  be  the  taking  of  the  animals  into 
the  ark  by  Noah,  which  was  a great  effort.  Side  by 
side  and  two  by  two,  the}7  walked  in  procession  from 
the  wilderness  at  the  bottom  of  the  sampler  — repre- 
sented by  three  triangular  trees  — to  the  ark  at  the  top, 
— indicated  by  a box  about  as  large  as  one  of,  the 
elephants  who  were  going  into  it,  at  the  side  of  which 
stood  Noah,  as  master  of  the  ceremonies,  bowing  in  a 
couple  of  lions.  And  the  delicious  grotesqueness  of 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


207 


those  spotted  leopards,  having  about  nine  spots  between 
them ; the  Egyptian  simplicity  of  those  apocalyptic 
sheep,  with  rectangular  bodies,  and  passionate-looking, 
independent  tails  ; and  the  general  delight  and  profu- 
sion which  appeared  everywhere,  — made  a beautiful 
exhibition  of  rural  simplicity  and  attainments. 

Perhaps  in  another  would  be  put  an  apotheosis  of 
Adam  and  Eve  in  paradise,  before  the  fatal  apple  was 
eaten,  and  the  serpent  was  still  on  his  best  behavior,  — our 
first  parents  sitting  side  by  side  on  a bank  of  primroses, 
hand  in  hand,  looking,  as  well  as  black-stitched  e}res 
would  allow  them,  at  their  prosperous  row  of  beehi  ves  in 
front,  or  their  stoi'es  of  double  Gloster  cheeses  behind,  or 
the  donkey  and  cart  with  groceries  from  the  nearest  mar- 
ket-town, which  the  farm-servant  had  just  brought  home ! 
That  was  the  ideal  of  rural  felicity ; and  great  was  the 
occasion  upon  which  Mary  Ann  or  Keziah  brought  home 
her  year’s  work  in  a complete  form  upon  the  sampler, 
— to  be  preserved,  and  form  part  of  the  furniture  of  her 
future  home.  I have  seen,  hanging  side  by  side  to- 
gether, the  needlework  samplers  of  four  generations  of 
women,  related  as  mother  and  child;  and,  though  such 
features  as  I have  mentioned  were  very  ludicrous  and 
amusing,  the  workmanship  was  excellent,  and  a charm- 
ing record  of  childish  experience  and  history.  I am  not 
ashamed  to  confess  that  I love  samplers,  because  all  of 
them  represent  the  best  work  of  individuals  at  an  age 
when  they  were  simply  delightful  people  ; because  there 
is,  as  a rule,  only  one  of  a sort  in  the  world,  and  there- 
fore they  never  are  vulgarized  by  repetition  ; but,  most 
of  all,  because  samplers  were  educational : they  taught 
the  child  to  use  the  needle  skilfully  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  each  wife  to  stamp  in  a permanent  manner  her 
household  treasures,  and  gave  her,  whilst  yet  of  tender’ 
age,  some  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  art  and  skilled 


208 


ART  EDUCATION. 


workmanship  ; and  they  expressed  the  feeling  of  the  ages 
in  which  they  were  executed. 

Yet,  whilst  I advocate  the  use  of  the  needle  as  a noble 
means  of  surface  decoration,  I do  not  wish  to  over-esti- 
mate it.  Cases  have  come  to  my  knowledge  of  such 
work  monopolizing  time  which  should  have  been  given 
to  the  necessities  of  general  education;  and  one,  which 
is  particularly  ludicrous,  I will  relate,  occurring  in  that 
ancient  little  Island  of  Great  Britain,  which  I may  be 
excused  for  loving.  A friend  of  mine,  who,  from  his 
distinction  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  was  appointed 
an  inspector  of  schools  by  the  government  of  the  day, 
had  to  examine  each  pupil  in  his  district  in  those  ele- 
vating subjects  of  a comprehensive  education,  — the 
three  Il's,  as  a member  of  the  school  committee  de- 
scribed it : Reading,  Riting,  and  Rithmetic.  He  was 
inspecting  a rural  school  on  the  moors  of  Yorkshire, 
which  are  the  prairies  in  miniature  of  a kingdom  which 
would  be  lost  in  one  of  our  prairies;  and,  taking  the 
head  class,  had  got  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  it,  when  the 
next  candidate  was  a big,  healthy-looking,  strapping, 
rustic  lass,  who  stood  a whole  head  and  shoulders  above 
the  rest  of  the  class.  My  friend  asked  her  to  read  a 
passage  iu  the  text-book;  but  she  smilingly  informed 
him  “ she  didn’t  read.” 

“ Will  you  then  kindly  write  a sentence  from  my  dic- 
tation ? ” asked  the  inspector. 

“ Oh,  no,  sir  ! ” was  the  reply : “ I can’t  write.” 

“Not  write  ! ” exclaimed  her  Majesty’s  representative  : 
“ then  you  can  possibly  work  me  a sum  in  simple  addi- 
■ tion  ; for  your  talents  must  be  mathematical,  — you  must 
be  absorbed  in  figures.” 

■ “ Oh,  no,  sir  ! I know  nothing  about  figures.” 

That  was  a poser  ; but,  coming  up  fresh  and  smiling  to 
the  intellectual  combat,  my  friend  suggested,  — 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


209 


“As  I do  not  seem  to  liave  mentioned  your  pecu- 
liarly-strong  points,  perhaps  you  will  now  kindly  inform 
me  what  you  can  do.” 

“ Oh,  yes,  sir  ! ” was  the  reply;  and,  dropping  a cour- 
tesy, she  said,  “ Please,  sir,  I can  crochet  Moses  ! ” 

“ Crochet  Moses  ! What  on  earth  does  that  mean  ? ” 
asked  the  inspector. 

Whereupon  a Berlin-wool  picture  of  Moses  striking 
the  rock  was  produced,  in  which  was  a flood  of  lamb’s- 
wool  water  rushing  out  to  comfort  the  thirsty  Israelite 
multitude,  which  the  rustic  lass  had  executed  by  years 
of  toil ; and  which  having  accomplished,  her  education 
was  complete  in  her  own  eyes. 

Now,  I don't  want  people  to  crochet  Moses,  or  to 
crochet  at  all ; but  I do  want  to  see  the  accomplished 
ladies  who  happily  possess  leisure  invest  some  of  it  in 
the  most  beautiful  and  most  permanent  of  all  feminine 
accomplishments,  — lace-making  by  hand,  and  embroi- 
dery. 

Properly,  I should  here  speak  of  damasks  and.  car- 
pets, as  being  woven,  but  will  omit  them  in  their  natural 
order  to  class  them  in  the  group  of  applied  ornament ; 
previous  to  which  I will  enumerate  some  of  the  general 
principles  of  ornamentation  applied  to  flat  surfaces. 

The  first  and  most  important  is  that  which  requires 
modesty  and  subordination  in  all  ornament  covering  an 
even  or  level  surface.  It  may  possibly  detract  from  the 
luxurious  profusion  of  a saloon  to  banish  from  it  all  the 
elaborate  bouquets  of  flowers  on  the  carpets,  or  the  birds 
of  paradise  which  are  disporting  themselves  on  the  walls 
or  the  furniture  ; but  their  presence  is  inconsistent  with 
the  first  approach  to  good  taste. 

I have  seen  with  satisfaction  how  frequently  apart- 
ments are  painted  in  one  color  here,  rather  than  papered  ; 
for  it  is  safer  to  trust  to  one  color  than  many ; but  the 


210 


ART  EDUCATION. 


almost  universal  custom  of  dividing  tlie  room  into  panels 
gives  the  decorator  the  opportunity  of  spoiling  the 
whole  effect  by  efforts  at  relief  and  roundness,  and  the 
addition  of  shaded  ornament,  which  kills  all  the  furni- 
ture, and,  by  bringing  the  walls  forward,  decreases, 
apparently,  the  size  of  the  room.  The  same  effect  of 
decreasing  the  size  of  a room  is  frequently  produced  by 
a carpet  having  a large  pattern,  which  dwarfs  the  furni- 
ture and  destroys  the  sense  of  repose.  The  color  of  a 
carpet  is  also  of  the  greatest  importance  ; for  if,  as  I see 
is  almost  general  in  richly-furnished  houses,  the  carpet 
is  very  light  in  color,  harmonious  combination  of  general 
effect  is  an  impossibility. 

In  furnishing  a room,  as  much  skill  may  be  displayed 
as  in  the  composition  of  a picture  : indeed,  they  are  pre- 
cisely the  same  things.  The  first  task  is  to  produce  an 
agreeable  combination  of  colors,  to  keep  all  the  details 
in  their  proper  proportion  as  to  size,  and  to  make  them 
consistent  in  their  style.  The  figures  in  the  pictures 
are  the  human  beings  who  inhabit  the  rooms.  And 
there  is  the  same  opportunity  given  of  producing  an 
effect  in  any  special  direction,  and  making  definite  im- 
pressions on  the  mind.  Thus  the  library  or  study  may, 
by  its  sobriety  of  tint  and  quietness  in  arrangement, 
suggestand  induce  repose  of  sensation  ; whilst  it  encour- 
ages activity  of  the  mental  faculties;  and  the  reception- 
rooms,  by  their  brightness  and  cheerfulness,  may  display 
the  qualities  of  welcome  and  geniality*. 

The  position  of  a surface  is  suggestive  of  the  treat- 
ment of  its  ornamentation.  Thus  a floor  or  a ceiling  is 
a horizontal  plane,  and  the  ornamentation  should  neither 
proceed  from  right  to  left  nor  cross-wise  in  any  direction, 
but  be  what  is  termed  an  “ all  over  ” pattern,  covering 
the  surface  without  leading  the  eye  away  from  any 
point.  A wall,  on  the  contrary,  is  a vertical  plane,  and 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


211 


there  the  decoration  may  be  vertical ; that  is,  tending 
upwards,  on  the  principle  of  the  growth  of  plants. 

In  all  subordinate  ornamentation,  symmetry  and  con- 
ventionality are  essential ; and  great  variety  is  by  no 
means  necessary  for  producing  a pleasing  effect.  In  the 
best  periods  of  ornament,  the  actual  variety  of  forms 
has  been  slight.  Thus,  in  Greek  art,  the  acanthus, 
echinus,  anthemion,  the  fret  and  guilloche,  were  the 
only  important  rudimentary  ornaments ; and  these  were 
repeated  and  perfected  until  they  became  types  of 
beauty. 

It  is  the  secret  of  using  colors  of  a negative  character 
which  makes  Turkey  carpets  the  most  satisfactory  to 
the  refined  taste ; and,  again,  it  is  the  conventionality 
of  ornament  in  Indian  goods  that  makes  them  deserv- 
edly popular,  — without  the  reason  for  this  liking 
always  being  recognized.  On  the  other  hand,  Chinese 
ornament,  which  endeavors,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to 
imitate  nature,  has  never  been  accepted  by  ornamentists 
as  any  thing  but  rude  and  barbarous,  except  where  local 
tradition  has  preserved  a style  of  decoration  that  has 
been  either  excellent  in  its  simplicity,  or  associated  with 
some  valuable  scientific  process  of  manufacture. 

3.  Applied  Ornament.  — I now  come  to  the  third 
class  of  surface  decoration,  and  will  endeavor  to  define 
the  true  position  of  the  carpet  and  paper-hanging  under 
this  head. 

Of  Carpets.  — A carpet  should  be  always  chosen  as 
a background,  upon  which  the  other  articles  of  furniture 
are  to  be  placed,  and  should,  from  its  sober  colors  and 
unattractive  features,  have  a tendency  rather  to  improve 
by  comparison  objects  placed  upon  it,  than  command  for 
itself  the  notice  of  the  spectator.  It  should  vie  with 
nothing,  but  rather  give  value  to  all  objects  coming  in 
contact  with  it.  Composed  of  sombre  shades  and  tones, 


212 


ART  EDUCATION. 


and  treated  essentially  as  a flat  surface,  it  exerts  a most 
valuable,  though  subordinate  influence  upon  all  the 
other  decorations  of  the  room.  Upon  it  the  eye  rests 
whilst  surveying  the  more  important  furniture  ; and  its 
presence,  properly  treated,  supplies  the  necessary  mate- 
rial for  a satisfactory  contrast  with  other  portions  of 
the  decoration,  which  comparison  in  no  wise  detracts 
from  its  own  peculiar  degree  of  merit,  but  proves,  from 
this  circumstance,  how  valuable  it  is  as  contributing  to 
the  pleasing  effect  of  the  whole  apartment. 

Of  paper  and  other  hangings,  Mr.  Redgrave  has  so 
clearly  expressed  the  uses,  that  I quote  his  remarks : — 

“ If  the  use  of  such  materials  is  borne  in  mind,  the 
proper  decoration  for  them  will  at  once  be  evident, 
since  this  ought  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  objects 
in  the  room  that  a background  does  to  a picture.  In 
art,  a background,  if  well  designed,  has  its  own  dis- 
tinctive features ; yet  these  are  to  be  so  far  suppressed 
and  subdued  as  not  to  invite  especial  attention ; while, 
as  a whole,  it  ought  to  be  entirely  subservient  to  sup- 
porting and  enehancing  the  principal  figures,  — the 
subject  of  the  picture.  The  decoration  of  a wall,  if 
designed  on  good  principles,  has  a like  office : it  is  a 
background  to  the  furniture,  the  objects  of  art,  and  the 
occupants  of  the  apartment.  It  may  enrich  the  general 
effect,  and  add  to  magnificence,  or  be  made  to  lighten  or 
deepen  the  character  of  the  chamber ; it  may  appear  to 
temper  the  heat  of  summer,  or  to  give  a sense  of 
warmth  and  comfort  to  the  winter : it  may  have  the 
effect  of  increasing  the  size  of  a saloon,  or  of  closing  in 
the  walls  of  a library  or  study,  — all  which,  by  a due 
adaptation  of  color,  can  be  easily  accomplished.  But 
like  the  background  to  which  it  has  been  compared, 
although  its  ornament  may  have  a distinctive  character 
for  any  of  these  purposes,  it  must  be  subdued,  and 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


213 


uncontrasted  in  light  and  shade : strictly  speaking,  it 
should  be  flat  and  conventionalized,  and  lines  or  forms 
harsh  or  cutting  on  the  ground  as  far  as  possible 
avoided,  except  where  necessary  to  give  expression  to 
the  ornamentation.”  “Well-considered  design,  thor- 
oughly adapted  for  the  process  of  printing  by  machinery, 
would  enable  the  manufacturer  to  unite  good  taste  with 
extreme  cheapness ; whereas  the  only  present  result  is, 
by  increased  labor,  to  detract  from  the  beauty  of  the 
ornamentation.  ’ ’ 

All  designs  which  have  a tendency  to  divide  the 
flat  surface  of  a wall-paper  into  distinct  compartments, 
or  have  colors  so  distributed  that  they  attract  the  eye 
at  intervals.;  all  designs  which  cut  sharply  from  the 
ground,  and  exhibit  the  ornamentation  in  strong  contrast 
to  that  which  it  is  upon,  or  by  a combination  of  several 
tints  of  the  same  color  appear  to  relieve  the  ornament 
from  its  background,  — are  false  in  principle,  and  defi- 
cient in  the  simplicity  which  should  characterize  this 
branch  of  decoration.  An  evenness  of  effect  must  be 
the  sine  qua  non  of  a material  which  is  to  cover  a sur- 
face, that,  if  it  were  otherwise  than  flat,  would  not  be 
tolerated. 

As  a rule,  all  imitations,  in  whatever  material,  of  a 
totally  different  surface  from  that  which  characterizes 
the  material  itself,  are  false.  It  seems  a wonderful 
instance  of  misdirected  talent,  that,  whilst  the  art  of 
the  engraver  has  attained  the  perfection  it  has,  so  many 
young  ladies  should  perseveringly  waste  their  time  in 
attempting  to  delineate  a minute  face,  full  of  expres- 
sion, on  a surface  which  is  totally  unfit  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a design  having  any  pretension  to  graceful 
curves  or  delicate  light  or  shade. 

Vice  versa , this  peculiarity  of  Berlin  wool  is  trans- 
ferred with  the  greatest  nicety  to  block-printing  for 


214 


ART  EDUCATION. 


paper-hangings,  the  smoother  surface  of  which  renders  it 
capable  of  receiving  the  most  elegant  curves,  and  the 
most  delicate  tints.  The  very  fact  of  a manufacture 
attempting  to  pass  muster  as  something  different  to 
what  it  really  is,  should  condemn  it.  The  fact  of  an 
object  being  a great  deal  too  good  for  its  use  should 
condemn  it.  Every  object  in  a room  may  he  good  in 
its  degree,  but  it  should  not  attempt  to  be  of  more  im- 
portance than  its  degree  warrants.  Supposing  the  occu- 
pants of  an  apartment  to  be  of  primary  consideration, 
as  every  thing  else  is  for  their  gratification,  then  works 
of  high  art  take  the  precedency. 

Nothing  should  be  more  attractive  than  that  which 
precedes  it  in  importance  ; and,  for  this  reason,  life-size 
figures,  either  in  painting  or  sculpture,  are  out  of  place 
in  a constantly-occupied  apartment : the  next  degree 
is  taken  by  the  movable  furniture ; and  last  of  all 
comes  the  background  on  the  wall  or  floor. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  art,  that  the  higher  forms  should  be 
added  to  the  lower,  and  neither  can  be  regarded  as  a 
substitute  for  the  other,  and  that  the  higher  forms  are 
out  of  place  unless  preceded  by  the  more  elementary. 
1 1 is  so  in  civilization.  The  hunter’s  life  precedes  the 
agricultural  life,  the  manufacturing  epoch  succeeds  to 
the  agricultural ; just  as  the  earth  cavern  develops  into 
the  tent,  the  hut  or  tent  into  the  house,  the  house  into 
the  village,  the  village  into  the  city.  But,  for  human 
happiness,  each  should  be  sterling  and  consistent,  — the 
honest  expression  of  men’s  wants,  and  not  aping  the 
characteristics  of  the  other.  Progressive  development 
is  a delightful  study,  and  is  as  true  in  art  as  in  all  other 
honest  things.  The  influence  of  consistency  in  decora- 
tion and  oruament  on  tlje  sensations,  and  their  mental 
effect,  is  not  to  be  ignored  or  treated  as  a thing  of  no 
consequence. 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


215 


If  it  is  true  that  a man  may  he  known  by  the  com- 
pany he  keeps,  it  is  equally  true  that  he  may  be  judged 
by  the  books  he  reads,  and  the  objects  which,  of  his 
own  free-will,  and  having  the  means  to  do  as  he  likes, 
he  surrounds  himself  by.  Of  the  effect  on  men’s  minds 
of  good  or  bad  pictures,  there  can  be  no  doubt ; and  the 
same  principle  holds  good  of  refined  or  vulgar  ornamen- 
tation. The  limit  which  controls  the  application  of 
this  principle  is  that  of  means.  Taste  often  outruns  a 
man’s  means  ; perhaps  as  often  as  that  with  some  people 
the  reverse  is  true,  and  that  money  is  the  substitute  for 
taste.  Still  the  rough  material  of  even  the  humble 
cottage  may  be  made  influential  for  refinement  and 
comfort.  There  may  be  as  much  taste  displayed  in  the 
appointments  of  the  poor  room  as  in  those  of  a wealthy 
mansion,  each  being  suitable  to  the  requirements  of  the 
possessors  ; for  quantity  is  unimportant  as  an  element  in 
taste.  The  evil  tendency  is,  when  people  can’t  afford 
pictures  or  engravings  of  works  of  art,  they  try  to  com- 
bine their  want  for  something  of  the  kind  with  the 
necessity  of  having  their  rooms  papered  ; and  that  spoils 
both.  Art  cannot  be  manufactured  ; and,  if  a man  can- 
not afford  good  pictures,  let  him  be  content  with  a back- 
ground for  them.  Machinery  and  block -printing  are 
incapable  of  producing  good  works  of  art ; and  any  one 
with  even  a decent  perception  of  the  beautiful  will  soon 
tire  of  bad  ones,  though  their  pernicious  effect  will  have 
depraved  his  taste  and  corrupted  his  power  of  judgment. 

If  a man  is  unable  to  provide  himself  with  pictures 
and  engravings  of  the  noblest  subjects,  or  portraits  of 
eminent  men,  distinguished  for  virtue  or  patriotism,  to 
be  a delight  and  comfort  to  him,  — if  that  be  impossible, 
he  needn’t  hang  up  the  likenesses  of  murderers  to  lower 
the  tone  of  his  mind  or  suggest  bad  thoughts.  And 
so,  if  richness  of  decoration  be  beyond  a man’s  means, 


216 


ART  EDUCATION. 


simplicity  and  absence  of  any  meretricious  efforts  may 
protect  liim  from  outrage  to  his  taste. 

A poor  man  of  great  taste  and  eminence  was  once 
visited  in  a house  whose  bare  walls  seemed  to  attract 
the  attention  of  his  visitor.  “ How  is  it,”  he  was  asked, 
“ that  you  don’t  make  your  rooms  more  attractive  by 
hanging  up  a few  pictures,  or,  at  any  rate,  have  the 
walls  papered  with  some  lively  pattern  having  nice 
colored  representations  on  it  ? ” The  answer  was  quick 
and  exhaustive  : “ I can’t  afford  good  works  of  art,  and 
there’s  no  act  of  parliament  to  compel  me  to  have  bad 
ones.  As  for  papers  with  pictures  on  them,  sixpence  a 
yard  for  art  doesn't  fit  my  taste  ; and  I have  done  noth- 
ing to  deserve  them  as  a punishment.” 

I was  once  informed  of  the  utter  misery  inflicted 
unintentionally  upon  a man  whose  life  was  as  valuable 
to  society  as  to  himself,  by  the  presence  in  a sick-room 
of  a wall-paper  which  had  certain  prominent  red  spots 
upon  it,  appearing  at  intervals  in  the  pattern.  He  was 
just  past  the  climax  of  a typhoid  fever,  and  had 
arrived  at  that  stage  when  the  mind,  not  yet  in  full 
possession  of  the  exhausted  body,  conjures  up  delusions, 
— an  almost  inseparable  stage  in  recovery  from  such  a 
malady,  and  so  critical  a time,  that  any  relapse,  through 
excitement  or  other  causes,  is  almost  certain  to  end 
fatally.  Before  the  mind  was  capable  of  consecutive 
thought,  like  that  of  the  child  just  strong  enough  to 
receive  impressions  only,  the  patient  opened  his  eyes 
to  perceive  on  all  sides  a fiery  red  eye  gazing  on  him 
from  the  walls  of  the  room.  That  took  the  form  of  a 
delusion,  and  his  semi-delirious  efforts  to  hide  these  dread- 
fid  eyes  from  his  sight  almost  brought  on  the  fatal  relapse. 
Curtains  were  hung  closely  round  him,  though  neither 
the  doctor  nor  nurses  were  suspicious  of  the  cause  of  his 
delusion.  His  convalescence  was  then  rapid ; but,  before 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


217 


lie  became  sufficiently  conscious  to  speak  collectedly,  tke 
curtains  were  removed,  and  then  the  red  balls  tortured 
him  in  another  form.  Do  what  he  would,  he  could  not 
help  counting  them  from  floor  to  ceiling,  from  one  wall 
to  another,  casting  up  the  figures  mentally,  adding  and 
subtracting,  without  power  to  control  himself,  until  he 
was  almost  in  a worse  fever  than  ever ; until  at  last  he 
was  sensible  enough  to  beg  that  he  might  be  taken  to  a 
room  where  there  was  no  paper  at  all,  and  then  found 
repose  and  comfort.  The  tortures  he  felt  during  that 
time,  he  said,  were  indescribable  ; and  his  grief  was,  that 
he  had  not  strength  enough  nor  clearness  of  head  enough 
to  explain  what  it  was  that  afflicted  him. 

Now,  that  is  a true  story  of  the  effects  of  bad  art  on 
a sensitive,  irritated  condition  of  the  body,  brought  on 
by  exhaustion  and  prostration ; yet  it  shows  what  effect 
a villanous,  bad  design  is  capable  of  producing  upon  a 
sensitive  mind.  I have  suffered  from  the  very  same 
cause,  and  known  many  others  who  have  also  been  thus 
distressed,  and  have  no  doubt  that,  either  consciously  or 
unconsciously,  it  affects  every  one. 

Good  ornamental  art,  fitness,  and  consistency  in  that 
which  surrounds  us,  is  like  a pleasant  melody  if  simple, 
and  like  a chorus  of  delightful  harmony  if  elaborate : 
bad  art  — the  ignorant  jumbling  together  of  incon- 
sistent elements,  or  the  heaping  up  of  vulgar  ostenta- 
tion — is  like  a sonorous  rhapsody  which  has  neither 
time  nor  tune ; or  like  the  jangle  of  sounds  produced 
when  all  the  notes  of  a piano  are  struck  by  one  violent 
blow.  It  has  been  said,  that  “ a thing  of  beauty  is  a 
joy  forever.”  And  one  of  the  very  greatest  blessings 
that  can  happen  to  a human  being  is  to  have  the  eyes 
opened  to  a perception  of  beauty.  The  man  who 
looks  at  the  forest,  and  sees  only  lumber,  is  a poorer 
man  and  a less  joyous  man  than  he  who  sees  in  all 


218 


ART  EDUCATION. 


things  the  marvellous  beauties  of  nature,  and  in  a tree 
the  manifestation  of  almighty  power.  We  may,  and 
often  do,  degrade  things  to  an  earthy  level,  and  live 
and  die  without  having  felt  a communion  with  spiritual 
laws  by  our  understanding  of  the  beautiful. 

I claim  for  art  the  position  of  an  element  in  all  edu- 
cation for  the  increase  of  human  happiness.  We  know 
what  was  said  by  the  poet  of  mankind  concerning 
music : “ The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself,  nor 
is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds,  is  fit  for 
treasons,  stratagems,  and  spoils  : let  no  such  man  be 
trusted.” 

Rather  hard  on  the  unmusical ; though,  as  an  old 
chorister,  I can  say,  that  there  are  very  few  human 
beings  who  answer  to  the  description  of  not  having 
music  in  their  souls.  And  if  any  one  doubts  it,  and 
wishes  to  form  an  opinion,  I would  ask  him  to  go  to 
any  of  the  primary  schools  in  the  city  of  Boston,  and 
ask  the  teachers  to  allow  the  little  scholars  to  sing  some 
simple  melody  they  have  been  taught.  Let  him,  if  his 
ear  be  trained,  listen  if  there  be  any  harsh  or  discordant 
sounds,  not  in  the  tune,  evolved  from  the  little  throats, 
and  then  see  if  any  lips  be  closed.  If  he  finds  what 
I have  found,  he  will  notice  that  all  sing,  and  hear  no 
discord,  and  see  no  dumb  lips.  Training  has  developed 
the  “ music  in  the  soul,”  and  education  done  its  faithful 
duty. 

Now,  what  education  has  accomplished  for  music,  let 
us  hope  to  see  done  for  form  and  color.  There  are  those 
who  love  and  understand  both  subjects,  who  believe 
that  the  “ music  in  the  soul  ” produced  by  art  knowl- 
edge is  a source  of  as  much  delight  as  the  melody  and 
harmony  of  sound. 

And  we  cannot  insure  the  appreciation  of  art  until 
we  make  all  of  its  developments  pure  and  chaste.  It 


SURFACE  DECORATION. 


219 


will  be  of  little  avail  to  build,  galleries  and  establish 
academies,  unless  they  are  made  to  affect  the  character 
of  popular  art  in  every  phase  of  its  use.  Pure  art 
never  existed  side  by  side  with  corrupt  and  vulgar  orna- 
ment, any  more  than  pure  religion  consists  of  very  much 
faith  and  very  indifferent  works.  Life,  if  it  exists  at 
all,  permeates  the  whole  body,  brain,  blood,  bones,  mar- 
row ; it  cannot  carry  about  a dead  limb,  but  shakes  it 
off : so  art  which  exists  for  the  polite  and  well-dressed, 
and  does  not  reach  to  the  humble  folks  clad  in  fustian,  is 
an  art  afflicted  by  paralysis,  — a diseased  and  unnatural 
condition,  to  be  pitied  perhaps,  but  not  imitated  nor 
prolonged.  Let  us  hope,  that  in  the  fair  field  there  is 
before  us,  which  has  so  early  recognized  the  value  and 
blessings  of  education,  no  human  faculties  will  be 
ignored,  no  possible  human  attainments  will  be  neglected, 
no  sources  of  human  happiness  will  be  closed ; but  that 
the  chief  corner-stone  of  our  liberties,  inscribed  with  the 
words,  “ All  men  are  born  free  and  equal,”  shall  mean 
for  us,  not  only  freedom  from  oppression,  but  freedom 
from  ignorance ; not  only  equality  with  ourselves,  but 
equality  with  the  best  people  of  the  best  periods  of  the 
world’s  history ; and  that,  if  the  corner-stone  in  the 
foundation  does  not  express  this,  the  keystone  of  Ameri- 
can progress  shall  attain  unto  it. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT,  — MODELLING  AND  CARVING. 
POTTERY,  GLASS,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

13ELIEF  ornament  — modelling  and  carving,  work- 
_\j  ing  in  solid  material  in  imitation  of  form  only, 
just  as  surface  decoration  attempts,  by  reproduction 
of  outline  and  color  upon  a flat  surface,  to  convey  the 
ornamental  character  of  a subject  in  outline  and  color, 
without  relying  on  its  roundness  — is  one- of  the  most 
important  branches  of  industrial  art. 

Relief  ornament — i.e.,  ornamental  forms  relieved  or 
raised  from  the  surface  they  are  upon  — is  the  appli- 
cation of  sculpture  to  industrial  purposes,  in  the  same 
way  that  surface  or  flat  ornament  is  the  industrial  appli- 
cation of  the  fine  art,  painting. 

In  many  respects,  industrial  sculpture  is  of  greater 
influence  and  of  more  importance  than  ornamental 
painting ; for  it  is  less  possible  to  reproduce  it  by  me- 
chanical means.  Many  and  persevering  have  been  the 
efforts  to  invent  a carving-machine,  which  should  do  for 
wood  and  stone  what  block-printing  and  chromo-litho- 
graphy have  done  for  surface  decoration.  But  the  man 
has  not  yet  been  born  who  has  succeeded  in  doing  that ; 
and  we  shall  have  to  wait  a little  longer  before  he 
comes : if  by  some  oversight  he  should  never  come  at 
all,  it  will  be  a great  blessing  to  mankind. 

220 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


221 


Attempts  have  been  made  to  carve  by  machinery,  and 
certain  rough  effects  have  been  produced : thus  the 
outline  and  actual  relief  of  a scroll  of  wood-work  can 
be  obtained  in  duplicate,  after  the  first  model  has  been 
made,  by  a machine  now  in  use  in  London,  and  which  I 
have  seen  in  operation,  worked  somewhat  in  this  man- 
ner : — 

A panel  of  ornament  is  placed  flat  on  its  back,  and,  in 
a corresponding  position  near  it  is  placed  a solid  wood 
block,  in  exactly  the  same  plane  as  to  its  upper  surface 
as  the  highest  point  in  the  ornament.  Two  pointed 
steel  pencils  — one  fixed,  and  the  other  gouge-shaped, 
and  revolving  by  steam-power  — are  placed  parallel  to 
each  other.  The  fixed  pencil  is  held  by  the  operator,  who 
begins  by  pressing  it  down  to  the  surface  of  part  of  the 
carving ; and  the  revolving  pencil,  which  acts  in  per- 
fect sympathy  with  that  which  is  handled  by  the  opera- 
tor, descends  or  ascends,  or  moves  to  the  right  and  left, 
according  to  the  movements  of  the  operator.  This 
revolving  pencil  is  placed  over  the  wood  block  to  be 
carved,  and  is,  in  fact,  a very  fine  cutter ; so  that,  as  it 
traverses  the  wood  block,  it  removes  the  material,  and 
leaves  what  is  left  on  the  original  carving,  over  which 
its  twin  point  in  the  hands  of  the  operator  has  been 
travelling. 

Mouldings  and  unimportant  details  might  thus  be 
reproduced ; but  the  work  would  always  have  to  be 
finished  by  hand. 

Another  mode  of  obtaining  the  effect  of  carved 
wood-work  was,  by  making  a metal  mould  red-hot,  and 
impressing  it  on  oak,  or  other  hard  wood,  charring  the 
material,  so  that  it  left  the  impress  of  the  mould  on  the 
panel.  That  was  at  one  time  used  to  produce  book- 
covers,  and  resulted  in  somewhat  handsome  effects. 
But  practical  difficulties  prevented  its  general  adoption, 


222 


ART  EDUCATION. 


and  it  was  a short-lived  experiment.  It  is,  in  fact,  an 
impossibility  to  produce  the  highest  forms  of  sculptured 
art  by  mechanical  processes ; and  thus,  as  a rule,  there 
is  more  originality  in  sculpture  and  carving  than  in  flat 
ornamentation. 

Stone-carving  cannot  well  be  accomplished,  even  in 
that  imperfect  way,  owing  to  the  more  brittle  character 
of  the  material,  which  would  chip  and  fracture,  where 
the  grain  and  tenacity  of  fibre  in  wood  would  preserve 
it  from  so  doing  when  hard  wood  was  used. 

So  that  there  is  more  originality  and  handwork  in 
modern  relief  ornament  than  in  its  sister  industry,  sur- 
face ornament ; in  this  respect,  more  like  the  same  work 
in  the  best  periods  of  art,  whether  Greek,  Roman, 
Gothic,  or  Renaissance. 

Men  were  sculptors  before  they  were  painters.  The 
mud-houses  and  unbaked  clay  blocks  with  which  habita- 
tions were  built  in  the  earliest  ages  were  infant  attempts 
at  modelling  in  clay,  much  as  the  cherished  dirt-pie  of 
our  more  innocent  days  betrayed  our  love  for  elemen- 
tary sculpture. 

The  stone  and  the  wood  used  in  the  construction  of 
huts  gave  birth  to  the  parent  art  of  architecture  when 
civilization  began  to  dawn  upon  barbarous  races,  and 
men’s  instincts  required  something  permanent  with 
which  to  shelter  their  bodies ; when,  in  fact,  there 
developed  a desire  for  a home,  and  its  centre,  the 
hearthstone : then,  when  stones  were  squared,  and 
timber  was  hewn,  Sculpture,  or  the  art  of  cutting,  was 
added  to  the  human  accomplishments. 

Afterwards,  colored  earths  or  dyes  were  rubbed  over 
the  naked  bodies,  the  walls  of  the  habitations,  and  the 
weapons  for  the  chase ; and  thus  Painting  came  to  the 
help  of  its  elder  sisters,  Sculpture  and  Architecture,  and 
the  arts  were  born. 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


228 


The  processes  of  reproduction  of  solid  forms  are,  of 
course,  as  numerous  as  for  the  repetition  of  flat  orna- 
ment by  the  use  of  plastic  material,  such  as  plaster  of 
Paris,  cement,  clay,  metal,  and  glass ; but  the  difficul- 
ties of  manufacture  very  much  limit  the  amount  of  art 
work  and  its  special  excellence  in  such  productions. 

The  one  process  whereby  the  highest  kind  of  art  can 
be  reproduced  almost  perfectly  — viz.,  by  terra-cotta  — 
has  never  been  fully  developed  in  that  direction.  It  is 
receiving  some  attention  now,  both  in  France  and  Eng- 
land ; and  we  may  expect  to  see  results  from  the  experi- 
'ments  which  are  being  made.  Yet  we  can  hardly  look 
upon  reproduction  in  terra-cotta  as  machine-made  sculp- 
ture ; for,  after  each  piece  has  been  taken  from  the 
mould,  it  has  to  be  fitted  to  other  pieces,  and  finished 
by  hand  by  at  least  as  good  an  artist  as  the  designer  of 
the  figure  : and  thus  moulded  terra-cotta  is  only  a means 
whereby  the  elementary  or  constructional  forms  of  mod- 
elling may  be  secured  ; and  the  finish  has  to  be  done 
entirely  by  skilled  hands. 

So  that  the  likelihood  is,  that,  in  the  future  as  in 
the  past,  there  will  be  a demand  for  skilled  labor  in 
solid  materials,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  its  repro- 
duction, — and  a demand  which  will  increase  in  pro- 
portion to  the  development  of  wealth  and  taste.  For 
this  reason  I stated,  that  the  act  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  which  compelled  the  cities  of  the  Common- 
wealth to  give  instruction  in  industrial  drawing  should 
have  also  included  modelling  in  the  course  of  studies  ; 
for,  though  drawing  is  the  soul  of  modelling,  it  is  not 
soul  and  body  as  well.  t 

As  I believe  there  is  not  a very  general  understand- 
ing of  the  processes  of  modelling,  moulding,  and  carv- 
ing, and  some  light  may  be  thrown  upon  the  subject  of 
design  for  relief  ornament  through  a consideration  of 


224 


ART  EDUCATION. 


their  peculiarities,  I propose  to  say  a few  words  in 
describing  the  processes  of  each  branch  of  this  group 
of  industrial  arts. 

And  firstly  as  to  the  difference  between  modelling 
and  carving. 

The  great  distinction  between  modelling  and  carving 
is  that  which  is  to  be  found  in  their  manipulative  pro- 
cesses, and  the  nature  of  the  materials  worked  in. 
Thus,  modelling  is  working  in  a soft  material,  as  clay  or 
wax,  principally  with  the  finger-ends  as  implements, 
aided  by  smooth  boxwood  tools,  made  to  imitate  the 
end  of  the  thumb  or  finger.  Carving  is  working  in  a 
hard  material,  whether  wood,  stone,  or  marble,  with  at 
first  heavy  tools,  and  at  all  times  edged  tools,  having 
cutting  and  scraping  work  to  do. 

Modelling  begins  with  nothing,  and  builds  up  the 
form : carving  begins  upon  a block  of  material,  and 
hews  the  form  from  it.  Thus,  in  relief  ornament,  mod- 
elling is  the  art  of  putting-on  or  adding-to ; carving, 
the  process  of  taking-off.  This  distinction  is  at  all 
times  the  most  important  one  to  impress  upon  the  stu- 
dent ; for  when  clay  is  used  like  wood  or  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  a lump  of  material  put  in  a place  from  which 
the  form  is  scraped  or  cut  out  of  the  yielding  clay,  then 
the  peculiar  quality  of  the  material  is  lost : and  in  this 
way  it  is  more  difficult  to  succeed  in  obtaining  a good 
effect  than  with  either  stone  or  plaster,  firm  to  the 
touch  and  unyielding. 

Statues,  busts,  and  the  finest  pieces  of  architectural 
enrichments,  are  always  first  modelled  in  damp  clay 
mixed  with  sand  ; so  ground  and  kneaded  with  water  as 
to  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of  dough  or  putty,  — not 
wet  enough  to  stick  to  the  fingers,  nor  stiff  enough  to 
be  worked  with  difficulty.  With  occasional  sprinklings 
whilst  the  modeller  is  at  work,  and  by  being  covered 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


225 


over  with  a clamp  cloth  when  not  at  work,  the  model 
is  kept  in  a workable  condition  until  it  is  finished  : being 
pliable,  the  clay  easily  receives  alterations,  corrections, 
and  additions,  until  the  designer  is'  satisfied  with  his 
work. 

Then  comes  the  process  of  moulding  and  casting,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  have  the  model  in  a material 
which  will  not  shrink  nor  crack.  If  the  work  was  left 
in  the  clay,  and  not  burned,  it  would  soon  crumble  to 
pieces,  be  very  fragile,  and  easily  be  destroyed. 

The  rfiethods  of  obtaining  moulds  and  casts  are 
various  ; but  the  most  common  are,  by  the  use  of  plaster 
of  Paris  for  both  the  mould  and  the  cast,  or  using  wax 
to  obtain  a mould,  and  plaster  to  make  the  cast. 

Plaster  moulds  are  of  two  kinds,  — the  waste-mould 
and  the  piece-mould,  — the  latter  being  also  sometimes 
called  a safe-mould,  because  out  of  it  many  casts  may 
be  taken  without  destroying  it ; whereas  from  the 
waste-mould  only  one  cast  can  be  taken,  and  the 
mould  is  chipped  from  the  cast  in  removing  it,  and 
therefore  destroyed.  The  process  of  waste-moulding  is 
fully  described  in  the  chapter  on  Casting  and  Casts. 

When  the  work  is  in  plaster,  it  can  be  afterwards  pro- 
duced in  stone  or  marble  by  means  of  a pointing- 
machine,  a mechanical  contrivance  which  enables  the 
carver  to  reproduce  a design  either  in  relief  or  the 
round  with  practical  accuracy.  In  the  case  of  a bust 
or  a statue,  the  artist  will  make  the  clay  model  himself, 
the  moulder  produces  it  in  plaster,  and  the  carver  repro- 
duces it  in  marble ; the  artist  putting  the  finishing  touches 
on  the  most  important  portions  as  the  work  apjuroaches 
completion.  Small  or  unimportant  details  of  ornamental 
sculpture  are  not  considered  of  sufficient  importance  to 
model  or  point,  but  are  chopped  out  of  the  block  by  a 
stone  carver ; a superior  workman  usually  laying  or 


226 


ART  EDUCATION. 


blocking  out  the  work,  and  one  of  less  skill  finishing  it 
But  elaborate  pieces  require  to  be  modelled,  cast,  pointed, 
and  finished  like  a bust  or  a statue. 

In  the  case  of  a bronze  statue  or  statuette,  the  same 
process  is  repeated,  with  the  exception  of  the  pointing 
and  carving ; casting  in  bronze  taking  the  place  of  the 
two  latter.  Thus  a bronze  statue  is  modelled  in  clay, 
cast  in  plaster,  and  then  cast  in  metal  from  a mould 
made  on  the  plaster  cast. 

The  two  great  distinctions  in  the  working  of  metals 
are  to  be  found  under  the  heads  of  wrought  and  cast  in 
the  coarser  materials,  as  iron  and  brass ; whilst  the 
precious  metals,  gold  and  silver  and  bronze,  are  either 
cast,  and  afterwards  chased,  or,  when  of  silver  or  gold, 
embossed  and  chased. 

Wrought-iron  work  — that  is,  iron  which  is  heated 
white,  and  hammered  into  the  required  shape  upon  the 
anvil  — is  one  of  the  noblest  and  truest  of  the  industrial 
arts.  The  hammering  increases  the  tensile  powers  of 
the  material  to  a great  extent ; so  that  it  becomes  more 
or  less  elastic,  and  will  spring  back  into  its  shape  from 
a blow  which  would  shiver  cast-iron  into  fragments. 
There  is  hardly  a limit  to  the  forms  which  may  be 
obtained  in  wrought-iron  ; and  its  use  for  some  of  the 
highest  decorative  purposes,  in  conjunction  with  brass 
hammered  and  worked  in  the  same  way,  is  one  of  the 
most  successful  developments  of  industrial  art  in  Eng- 
land at  the  present  time.  The  medievalists,  sickened 
and  disgusted  with  sham  bronze  and  lacquer,  have  gone 
back  to  wrought-iron  and  brass  as  honest  work.  It 
has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  Englishmen  in  this  century  to 
have  the  restoration  of  all  the  cathedrals  and  most 
of  the  parish  churches;  and  there  are  few  but  what 
either  in  the  rood-screen,  candelabra,  or  altar-rails,  dis- 
play masterpieces  of  wrought-iron.  Then  every  consid- 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


227 


erable  town  in  England  has,  during  this  century,  built, 
or  is  now  building,  a town  hall,  exchange,  hospitals, 
or  civic  buildings  of  some  kind  ; and  with  the  Gothic 
revival  has  come  a desire  for  the  best  work  in  all 
branches  of  labor,  each  town  v}7ing  with  its  neighbor  in 
the  magnificence  of  its  public  buildings  architecturally. 
In  all  there  is  generally  a display  of  wrought-iron  as  one 
of  the  elements  of  enrichment ; and  its  practice  thus 
extensively  has  called  into  existence  a race  of  art  work- 
men of  the  highest  class. 

One  feature  in  its  working  is  unique  : whilst  the  iron 
is  hot,  it  may  be  twisted  into  curves  whose  beauty  cannot 
be  equalled  in  any  other  process  ; but  that  supposes  the 
workman  or  artist  knows  what  is  beautiful  when  he  sees 
it,  or  is  striving  after  an  ideal  existing  in  his  own  mind  : 
the  capacity  of  the  material  is  there,  if  the  laborer  is 
competent  to  develop  it ; and  accident  sometimes  helps 
him  considerably. 

Cast-iron,  which  is  gradually  forming  so  important 
an  element  in  our  architecture,  is  incapable  of  highly- 
ornamental  treatment,  limited  by  one  condition  of  man- 
ufacture, — that  there  must  be  no  undercut,  or  cutting 
back  beyond  the  rounded  outline  of  the  ornament. 

The  moulds  in  which  metal  is  cast  have  to  be  made 
in  sand  or  loam  ; and  it  is  not  possible  to  get  these 
moulds  in  many  pieces : so  that,  except  for  slightly- 
relieved  surface  ornament,  flat  railings,  fluted  columns, 
or  such-like  elementary  ornament,  cast-iron  will  be  of 
little  avail  artistically. 

In  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867,  one  curious  fact  was 
very  manifest  to  all,  — that  the  French  seemed  to  distance 
the  whole  world  in  the  artistic  character  of  cast-metal 
work,  as,  for  instance,  bronze  and  iron  ; whilst  there 
was  not  any  comparison  to  be  made  in  wrought  metal 
with  that  of  the  English  medievalists : yet  the  French 


228 


ART  EDUCATION. 


had  no  wrought  work  to  speak  of,  and  the  English  no 
art  castings  worth  looking  at. 

Chasing  in  metal  is  finishing  with  a hard  steel  point 
and  a hammer  the  surface  of  a design  which  the  sandy 
surface  of  the  mould  has  left  granulated  or  rough,  and 
also  removing  all  flaws  and  imperfections  in  the  cast. 
The  lines  which  are  often  so  beautiful  on  a silver  goblet 
or  a medallion  are  generally  the  work  of  the  chaser, 
who  probably  has  not  made  the  design  or  the  model. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  the  various  stages  which  a silver 
candelabrum  or  a race-cup  has  to  go  through  before  it 
is  fit  for  delivery  to  the  customer. 

In  many  cases  the  design  is  made  by  the  draughts- 
man ; and,  when  approved,  it  is  handed  to  the  modeller, 
who  copies  it  in  clay  the  size  required.  It  is  then 
passed  on  to  the  plaster-moulder,  who  cuts  it  up  into 
as  many  parts  as  will  enable  it  to  be  easily  moulded  in 
silver.  He  then  makes  a plaster  mould  of  each  bit, 
from  which  he  takes  a wax  cast,  exactly  of  the  thick- 
ness which  the  silver  is  to  be  when  cast.  The  whole 
model,  in  many  little  bits,  is  thus  returned  to  the  mod- 
eller, who  works  on  the  wax  until  it  is  more  highly 
finished  than  in  the  clay.  When  completed,  it  is  then 
sent  to  the  silver-moulder,  who  makes  a sand  mould, 
and  casts  each  half  separately  in  silver,  and  passes  them 
on  to  a finisher,  who  joins  them  together.  He  sends 
them  on  to  the  chaser,  who,  having  filled  the  hollow  parts 
with  a hard  compound  of  pitch  and  resin,  so  as  to  make 
it  solid  to  work  upon,  chases  the  surface  into  brightness, 
adds  all  the  details  which  could  not  be  given  either  in 
clay  or  wax,  and  thus  finishes  the  work.  The  applica- 
tion of  heat  takes  away  all  the  pitch  and  resin,  and  the 
polisher  then  puts  the  burnished  surfaces  upon  it ; and 
it  is  ready  for  the  warehouse  or  the  customer. 

From  this,  it  will  be  seen  that  almost  any  thing  may 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


229 


be  done  in  silver,  and  also,  that,  when  works  of  art 
have  to  pass  through  so  many  hands,  each  must  be 
skilled,  or  the  work  will  be  spoiled.  Sometimes,  as  in 
the  case  of  Vecht<i,  a French  artist,  who  was  once  head 
of  Hunt  & Roskell’s  factory  in  London,  the  draughts- 
man, modeller,  and  chaser  are  combined  in  one  man ; 
and  that  undoubtedly  results  in  the  production  of  the 
best  works  of  art.  Thus  it  was  that  Cellini  worked  ; 
and  many  of  the  very  best  men  in  modern  times  have 
imitated  his  example. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  reasons  why,  in  modern  times, 
there  is  so  very  little  universality  of  power  in  individ- 
uals is,  because  we  divide  and  subdivide  labor  so  much, 
requiring  each  cobbler  to  “ stick  to  his  last,”  each  man 
to  go  blindfolded  and  grinding  round  in  his  own  mill. 
Here  I am  glad  to  see  this  is  not  so  much  the  case  as  in 
Europe,  — at  any  rate,  in  business  matters  ; though  it  is 
a good  deal  the  case  in  art.  Thus  an  artist  is  either 
a painter,  sculptor,  or  architect.  If  a painter,  either  a 
landscape  or  a figure  painter ; if  an  architect,  either 
a Goth  or  a Greek : and  neither  painter,  sculptor,  nor 
architect  deems  it  safe  to  step  over  the  margin-line  of 
his  own  department  in  his  own  branch  of  art  into  the 
realms  of  the  next.  Compare  this  with  what  Michael 
Angelo  did.  He  was  architect,  sculptor,  painter,  en- 
gineer, and  poet ; and  some  living  artists  would  die 
happily,  if  any  one  of  his  works  in  architecture,  paint- 
ing, or  sculpture  had  been  done  by  them. 

Then,  if  we  judge  Leonardo  da  Vinci  by  his  own 
testimony,  there  was  no  branch  of  art  he  was  not  ac- 
quainted with,  or  would  refuse  a commission  in  ; and, 
if  we  test  him  by  what  he  has  left  behind  him,  he  was 
a giant  among  artists,,  universal  in  his  genius. 

Division  of  labor  is  economy  in  the  factory : it  is 
paralysis  in  the  studio  ; and,  though  life  is  too  short  for 


230 


ART  EDUCATION. 


each  man  to  practise  all  branches  .of  art,  the  one  he 
devotes  himself  to  eventually  will  be  more  thorough  and 
intelligent  by  knowledge  of  the  rest,  than  it  can  be 
without  that  knowledge. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  most  valuable  men  in  this 
country,  and  in  all  others,  have  been  made  so  through 
having,  at  an  early  period  of  their  lives,  to  rely  upon 
themselves  for  every  thing  ; and  being,  in  consequence, 
many-handed  and  many-minded,  ready  for  every  emer- 
gency that  is  new,  and  preventing  many  mishaps  through 
foresight  which  comes  of  old  experience,  not  by  sticking 
to  one  last,  but  by  having  to  be  every  thing  by  turns. 

We  can  imagine  the  force  of,  say,  an  old  maiden  aunt 
of  Michael  Angelo’s,  who  could  do  nothing  but  knit 
(antimacassars),  sagely  advising  him  to  stick  to  his  last, 
and  his  mighty  scorn  of  the  thoughtless  counsel. 

It  is  the  handiness  and  general  helpfulness  of  Ameri- 
cans that  Europeans  cannot  understand ; and  they  ex- 
press their  recognition  of  it  by  speaking  of  an  American 
as  the  “universal  Yankee,” — about  the  best  possible 
testimony  to  his  education  and  capacity  that  could  be 
given. 

If  we  consider  the  kind  of  ornament  in  relief  appro- 
priate to  wood-work,  it  will  be  seen  at  once  the  color  of 
the  wood  has  very  much  to  do  with  that ; and  the  grain 
of  the  wood  is  also  an  important  element.  Very  bold 
ornament  in  very  dark  wood  is  apt  to  look  heavy,  clumsy, 
and  funereal ; and  delicate  ornament  in  wood,  where  the 
grain  is  coarse,  as  in  pine  or  oak,  is  labor  thrown  away. 

The  best  work  is  usually  done  in  boxwood  or  ebony ; 
mahogany  and  walnut  being  unsuitable  on  account  of 
the  variety  in  color  and  prominence  in  the  grain. 

Perhaps  more  important  even  than  the  consideration 
of  material  is  the  question  of  where  carving  is  admissi- 
ble in  the  design  and  where  inappropriate. 


f 


Hall  Chair  at  Cothele,  Devon,  England ; in  the  possession  of  the 
Earl  of  Mount  Edgcumbe. 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


231 


It  should  never  he  used  to  conceal  the  constructional 
features  of  an  object,  nor  to  form  any  part  in  any  way 
of  construction  itself  ; for  that  reason,  carving  should  be 
in  recessed  or  sunken  portions  of  the  form,  both  for  its 
protection  when  done  and  for  enrichment.  It  should 
not  be  allowed  to  make  the  outline  of  any  object,  or 
occur  in  prominent  places  ; for  that  will  interfere  both 
with  its  constructional  feature  and  the  use  of  the  object 
itself. 

In  modern  furniture,  wood-carving  is  plastered  over 
the  framework  as  though  it  were  put  on  with  a trowel, 
or  stuck  on,  as  it  too  often  is,  with  glue ; and  the  result 
is,  that  half  the  furniture  that  is  made  is  rickety  in  a 
month,  and  its  atrocious  ornaments  come  off  in  your 
hand  as  you  move  it  about.  Look  at  the  hall  chair  at 
Cothele,  and  compare  its  honest  simplicity  and  handsome 
enrichment  with  the  tricky  convolutions  and  over-orna- 
mentation of  modern  furniture.  No  man  would  hesitate 
to  sit  on  that  chair  in  doubt  of  its  strength,  nor  could 
he  easily  improve  its  design. 

In  wood-work,  strength  means  straightness  and  square- 
ness, with  the  grain  of  the  wood  going  from  end  to  end 
of  each  piece.  The  arch  is  of  no  account  in  wood,  and 
curvature  of  any  important  constructional  feature  means 
weakness  and  liability  to  destruction  in  use. 

If,  in  the  use  of  any  piece  of  furniture  made  in  wood, 
the  carved  work  must  be  handled,  or  it  forms  part  of  the 
object  which  has  to  be  relied  on  for  strength,  it  is  in  bad 
taste  and  design. 

Again,  very  high  relief,  and  very  round  delicate  carv- 
ing, is  bad,  because  wood  will  split,  and  parts  will  chip 
off,  or  warp,  and  crack  off. 

Some  years  ago  there  was  a mania  in  England  for 
carvings  of  birds,  in  which  every  feather  and  every  mark 
on  every  feather  was  exactly  imitated ; and  the  string 


232 


ART  EDUCATION. 


which  tied  the  bird  up  by  the  legs,  and  suspended  it  to 
the  nail  by  which  it  was  hanging,  was  so  precisely  imi- 
tated by  the  color  of  the  wood  — which  was  pear-tree  — 
and  the  cutting  on  its  surface,  that,  if  yTou  put  real  string 
by  the  side  of  the  carved  string,  no  one  could  tell  the 
difference. 

That  was  meretricious  art,  which  has  of  course  disap- 
peared, though  people  were  giving  thousands  of  dollars 
for  one  little  dead  bird  in  pear-tree  wood  whilst  the  fury 
lasted. 

The  best  test  of  the  best  design  in  an  object  of  use  is, 
that,  at  the  first  glance,  the  ornamentation  should  not  be 
noticeable  at  all ; coming  out  only  on  a second  look  or 
further  examination.  Then  we  can  be  sure  it  is  in  its 
right  place,  not  prominent  and  impertinent,  but  subor- 
dinate and  modest.  Apply  that  test  to  most  modern 
work,  and  you  will  see  how  it  fails  : the  first  thing  which 
strikes  the  eye  is  some  detestable  scroll-work  or  putty- 
like projection ; or,  if  the  object  be  a chair,  the  legs  and 
arms  will  be  practising  all  sorts  of  gymnastic  exercises, 
— all  of  which  taken  together  means,  bad  design,  vulgar 
display,  and  weak  workmanship.  The  Knole  chairs  are 
just  what  such  furniture  should  be,  — simple,  strong, 
handsome,  and  comfortable ; and  the  settee  has  the 
same  character. 

Apropos  of  this,  I should  like  to  say  that  ancient  carv- 
ing in  wood-work,  which  is  liable  to  destruction  by  being 
worm-eaten,  can  be  restored  to  almost  its  first  strength 
by  a very  simple  process.  Some  five  and  twenty  years 
ago,  an  English  nobleman  who  was  about  to  rebuild  his 
castle  found  that  a piece  of  very  elaborate  wood-carving, 
which  was,  ornamentally,  the  chief  feature  of  his  ban- 
queting-hall,  and  was  perhaps  the  best  work  of  the  best 
English  wood-carver,  — Grinling  Gibbons, — that  this 
piece  was  so  completely  a network  of  fibres  only7,  the 


Ancient  Sofa  in  the  Long  Gallery , Knole,  England. 


f 


Settee  in  Billiard-Room  at  A no/e,  England.  ( Date  1620.) 


Arm-Chair  at  Alt  ole,  England. 


RELIEF  OR  HA  ME  NT. 


233 


worm  having  destroyed  all  the  soft  parts  of  the  wood, 
that  removal  would  be  destruction  ; for  it  crumbled  in  the 
hand  like  a dead  leaf.  In  this  dilemma  Mr.  Rogers,  the 
queen’s  carver,  was  consulted ; and  he,  after  careful  exam- 
ination, and  several  experiments  on  other  samples  of  de- 
cayed wood,  completely  restored  it  to  almost  its  original 
strength.  His  method  was  this : he  steeped  the  whole 
piece  in  a composition  of  plaster  of  Paris  or  fine  cement 
mixed  with  glue  or  gelatine,  to  a consistency  as  thick  as 
cream,  and  let  the  wood  absorb  this  fluid  in  a hot  state, 
until  every  worm-hole  and  every  crevice  was  completely 
stopped  up,  making  the  carving  as  solid  as  when  it  was 
first  done.  When  the  composition  was  cold,  it  got  as 
hard  as  a stone,  and,  permeating  every  part  of  the  carv- 
ing, held  it  together  as  if  in  a vice.  A little  arsenic  with 
this  mixture  will  make  it  afterwards  an  unpalatable  dish 
to  future  worms. 

The  experiment  was  a complete  success ; and  in  case 
any  one  should  be  possessed  of  a valuable  piece  of  wood- 
carving which  is  rapidly  going  to  destruction,  and  may 
desire  to  restore  it  to  safety  and  permanence,  I would 
suggest  this  remedial  process. 

There  might  be  some  difficulty  in  thus  soaking  a book- 
case or  a sideboard  ; but  any  small  gem  of  sculpture  may 
be  effectually  cured  by  the  process. 

Stone-carving,  which  occupies,  next  to  architectural 
design,  the  most  important  place  in  external  decoration 
of  buildings,  is  one  of  the  weakest,  perhaps  the  very 
weakest  branch  of  industrial  art  now  practised.  For 
this,  several  reasons  may  be  assigned : the  first  is,  that 
carvers  have  little  or  no  opportunity  of  studying  the  art 
of  modelling  in  clay,  which  would  give  them  a knowl- 
edge of  the  contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  and  of  the  effects 
of  certain  methods  of  obtaining  relief  distinctly : and 
another  is,  that  the  appreciation  of  old  forms  is  passing 


234 


ART  EDUCATION. 


away,  as  unfitting  to  express  our  present  feeling ; and  as 
yet  there  is  no  power  of  design  to  create  new  forms. 
The  copying  or  imitation  of  natural  leaves  may  be  very 
pretty,  but  it  is  not  ornament ; and  the  grace  and  light- 
ness of  foliage  cannot  be  imitated  in  a coarse  material 
like  stone. 

Then,  architectural  sculpture,  to  be  honest,  must  be 
safe  and  substantial,  well  backed  up  by  solid  material, 
and  not  so  cut  under,  and  made  thin  at  the  edges, 
that  it  becomes  fragile  and  like  paper  or  leather  work. 
In  the  best  styles  of  architecture,  the  ornamental  carv- 
ing was  strictly  conventionalized,  and-  symmetrical  in 
all  important  parts,  — Nature  supplying  the  motive  and 
source  of  subject,  the  sculptor  applying  them  to  archi- 
tectural needs. 

That  must  be  the  course  now,  as  soon  as  we  can  get 
skilled  workmen  to  study  nature  and  design.  The 
splendid  foliage  of  this  country  will  furnish  us  with  new 
combinations  of  forms,  varied  in  choicest  outlines,  and 
wealthy  by  contrasts  of  light  and  shade  on  their  rich 
surfaces  ; and  the  bright,  clear  atmosphere  will  preserve 
for  us  the  art  work  we  display  externally  on  our  public 
and  private  buildings. 

But  that  ver}r  purity  of  atmosphere  is  one  argument 
against  a very  popular  form  of  stone-carving  enrich- 
ment, which  is  almost  general  now  : I mean  the  in- 
cised ornament  on  fiat  stone  surfaces.  If  these  incisions 
were  filled  with  colored  cement,  or  if  the  smoke  and 
dirt  of  a manufacturing  town  could  be  relied  upon 
to  fill  the  sunken  device,  then  incisions,  used  very  spar- 
ingly, would  be  highly  ornamental : but  in  manj'  cities, 
such  as  Boston,  mill-chimneys  are  happity  scarce  ; and, 
so  long  as  it  is  so,  incised  ornament  will  have  very  little 
effect. 

Carving  without  power  of  drawing  is  an  impossibility ; 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


235 


for  not  only  must  the  complete  form  be  marked  on  the 
stone,  but  the  final  effect  be  seen  from  the  first,  so  that 
the  chisel  is  only  cutting  from  the  solid  mass  what  the 
pencil  has  already  expressed  on  paper  or  the  eye  sees 
mentally.  If  this  be  not  so,  then  the  workman  is 
making  experiments  where  mistakes  cannot  be  reme- 
died ; and  every  stroke  may  only  accidentally  help  the 
unseen  result,  or  certainly  destroy  it.  The  excellent 
effect  of  the  sculptured  ornament  on  many  of  the  build- 
ings in  Paris  results  greatly  from  their  being  carved  in 
position,  not  in  the  workshop.  There  must  be  an  abso- 
lute difference  of  treatment  in  the  same  subject  for  two 
positions,  — the  near  and  the  distant ; and  a frieze  or 
capital  which  may  look  well  in  the  atelier  will  probably 
be  tame  and  insipid  in  its  final  position,  seen  from  a dis- 
tance of  many  yards.  Yet  that  which  is  effective  and 
refined  in  appearance  at  a 'distance  is  not  disagreeable 
when  seen  near  at  hand,  having  a certain  breadth  and 
noble  simplicity  which  are  always  attractive  and  satisfy- 
ing to  the  eye  and  rnind  of  the  refined  observer. 

The  resources  of  art  in  the  form  of  pottery  have  at 
all  times,  especially  in  great  art  epochs,  been  seized  upon 
to  express  the  art  appreciation  of  different  races.  The 
Etruscan  vases  have  made  permanent  the  chaste  feeling 
of  their  authors,  and  transmitted  to  us  the  refinement 
of  other  ages.  The  Egyptian  pottery  was  exceedingly 
beautiful  in  form  and  outline,  though  somewhat  rude  in 
material ; and  the  vessels  which  have  been  used  by 
different  peoples,  and  have  been  preserved  to  us,  are 
the  clearest  manifestation  of  the  condition  of  domestic 
industrial  art  among  them. 

Perhaps  in  this  branch  of  industry  the  progress  made 
during  the  last  twenty  years  has  been  greater  than  in 
any  other;  and  it  has  been  in  the  direction  of  a return 
to  simplicity  and  ancient  'forms.  The  Russian  pottery 


236 


ART  EDUCATION. 


in  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867  astonished  e-ver}7  critic 
by  its  beauty  of  outline  and  fitness,  existing  side  by  side 
with  very  curious  art  displays  in  other  branches.  The 
Russian  love  of  art  is  princely  rather  than  popular ; 
and  the  country  has  yet  to  produce  its  first  painter  or 
sculptor  of  European  eminence. 

Last  year,  1871,  the  International  Exhibition  at  Keu- 
sington  took  for  special  illustration  the  subject  of  porce- 
lain ; and  it  was  unquestionably  the  finest  display  of 
specimens  ever  seen  together  in  one  building. 

Since  the  time  when  Flaxman  and  Wedge  wood,  the 
sculptor  and  princely  manufacturer,  combined  to  bring 
out  the  famous  Wedgewood  ware,  the  attention  of 
the  best  designers  and  potters  has  been  much  drawn 
towards  porcelain  and  pottery;  and  the  existence  of  the 
once  imperial  factoiy  at  Sevres,  and  the  now  imperial 
workshop  at  Berlin,  has  acted  as  an  impetus  to  the  pro- 
duction of  beautiful  works.  Then,  also,  the  popularity 
of  Palissy  ware,  and  majolica,  with  its  many  tints,  has 
led  manufacturers  to  imitate  these  wonderful  master- 
pieces, with  their  crafty  glazes  and  subtle  lustres. 

Some  notion  of  the  increase  in  value  of  pottery  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  may  be  obtained  by  an  instance 
quoted  by  Mr.  Robinson,  art  referee  to  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum.  Writing  in  1857,  he  says,  “ Four  or 
five  years  ago  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  Italian 
majolica  ware  might  have  been  purchased  at  dealers’ 
shops  and  London  auctions  at  from  a few  shillings  to  at 
most  a few  pounds,  say  five  or  ten  pounds,  at  the  high- 
est ; whilst  in  Ital}7  a few  scudi,  or  dollars,  would  pur- 
chase the  finest  piece.  Now,  these  same  pieces  will  sell 
for  twenty,  fifty,  a hundred,  two  hundred  pounds ; nay, 
I dare  scarcely  place  a limit  to  the  finest  specimens.  As 
an  instance,  the  most  seemingly  extravagant  price  ever 
heard  of  until  then  was  given  in  Italy,  not  four  years 


RELIEF  ORJVAMENT. 


237 


ago,  for  a fine  majolica  plate.  After  being  refused  by- 
dealers  and  amateurs  without  number,  on  account  of  its 
supposed  exorbitant  price,  — twelve  pounds  English 
($60),  — this  long-coveted  specimen  was  purchased  by 
a French  dealer.  This  year  the  same  piece  was  publicly 
sold  by  auction  in  Paris  for  the  sum  of  £450  ($2,250), 
and  brought  in  triumph  to  this  country  by  its  purchaser, 
a well-known  English  amateur.”  He  also  adds,  “ The 
Bernal  collection,  offered  intact  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment, and  declined,  for  £40,000,  only  two  years  ago,  was 
sold  by  auction  for  £60,000,  and  is  to-day  worth 
£100,000.” 

That  shows  the  rate  at  which  appreciation  of  pottery 
and  other  antiquities  is  progressing ; and  what  was  true 
in  1857  is  doubly  and  trebly  true  now. 

My  own  hope  is,  that,  before  every  specimen  of  ancient 
industrial  art  in  Europe  is  bought  up  for  national  col- 
lections, the  Boston  Fine  Art  Museum  will  be  built,  and 
patriotic  Americans  will  be  in  the  field  to  furnish  it  with 
works  of  fine  and  industrial  art. 

To  what  extent  combinations  of  different  materials 
in  furniture  are  advisable  or  in  good  taste,  seems  diffi- 
cult to  decide.  The  French  cabinet-makers,  who  pro- 
fess to  be  at  the  head  of  the  world  in  this  specialty, 
believe  most  thoroughly  in  the  use  of  metal  with  wood, 
and  recently  introduce  glass  and  pottery  to  an  unlimited 
extent.  Bronze  and  silvered  bronze,  with  either  light 
wood,  as  sandal-wood,  or  dark  wood,  like  oak  or  ebony, 
have  a good  effect  when  the  relief  of  the  bronze  is  not 
too  high.  Electrotypes  from  low-relief  friezes  or  medal- 
lions, let  in  as  panels,  are  quite  unexceptionable,  be- 
cause of  their  flatness.  Some  of  the  very  best  furniture 
displayed  in  the  Paris  Exjjosition  of  1867  introduced 
enamels  in  many  colors,  as  medallions  and  filigrees  of 
porcelain  and  pottery.  Thus  the  sandal-wood  book- 


238 


ART  F.DUCA  TFON. 


case  of  Wright  & Mansfield,  which  took  one  of  the 
highest  prizes,  had  some  of  Flaxman’s  best  medallions, 
of  a chaste  sage-green  ground,  white  figures  upon  it,  as 
its  principal  ornament.  Many  of  the  French  specimen's 
used  painted  porcelain  liberally,  consisting  of  groups  of 
flowers,  portraits,  ideal  heads,  and  sucli-like  : and  that 
was  not  in  good  taste  ; for  the  brilliant  colors  destro}’ed 
the  chaste  design,  and  gave  the  whole  productions  a 
nondescript  character,  — -half  fine  art,  half  industrial  art, 
neither  prominent  enough  to  decide  which  was  intended 
as  principal. 

In  many  otherwise  well-designed  and  beautifully-exe- 
cuted cabinets,  the  effort  to  display  the  resources  of 
the  manufacturer  ended  in  really  grotesque  confusion  as 
well  as  profusion.  Thus,  in  one  instance,  I saw  an  ebony 
cabinet,  having  brass  filigree  edges,  bronze  sunk  orna- 
ments, enamel  inlays,  ivor}r  inlays,  and  points  of  bright 
color,  obtained  by  precious  stones  highly  polished,  — all 
squandered  over  a surface  three  feet  by  four.  That 
was  like  the  pudding,  — all  plums  and  no  flour. 

I doubt  whether  more  than  two  or  three  distinct  mate- 
rials should  ever  be  used  upon  an  industrial  object,  even 
when  it  comes  within  the  scope  of  what  Mrs.  Partington 
calls  “ an  object  of  bigotry  and  virtue.” 

It  is  taking  a thing  out  of  the  realms  of  industry  to 
elaborate  it  so  much  that  it  should  be  kept  in  a glass 
case  for  fear  of  injury ; and  the  price  of  some  of  these 
industrial  masterpieces,  as  Ijiey  are  called,  is  such,  that, 
together  with  the  risk  of  destroying  them,  they  are  as 
costly  as  white  elephants.  Thus,  a small  cabinet  for 
coins  by  Diehl,  a French  cabinet-maker,  was  labelled  in 
the  1867  Exhibition  at  eleven  thousand  dollars,  and  was 
a small  one  into  the  bargain.  It  certainly  would  not 
have  held  a tenth  part  of  the  coins  required  for  its  pur- 
chase. 


Greek  Toilet  mre,  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Copeland. 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


239 


The  mischief  of  all  this  is,  that  there  can  be  no  grada- 
tion of  furniture  when  one  thing  is  so  rich  and  elaborate. 
It  kills  the  works  of  art  in  an  apartment ; and  it  makes 
the  man  who  owns  it  look  like  a shabby  biped,  and  the 
coins  it  is  supposed  to  protect  are  not  worth  so  much  as 
the  case  containing  them.  What  is  the  inference  when 
the  frame  is  worth  more  than  the  picture,  the  casket 
more  precious  than  the  gems  it  holds  ? 

Notwithstanding  this  objection  to  over-enrichment,  I 
am  confident  that  there  is  a solid  pleasure  derived  from 
every  sight  of  an  object  which  is  thoroughly  adapted  to 
its  use,  and  beautiful  as  well.  The  mind  dwells  on  it 
with  satisfaction ; and  there  is  the  same  enjoyment 
arising  from  its  contemplation  as  there  is,  in  a fine  day, 
a sense  of  joyous  health  or  “ the  concord  of  sweet 
sounds.” 

Of  terra-cotta,  or  burnt  earth,  which  the  artist  and 
art  connoisseur  love,  as  they  do  all  good  things,  little 
practical  use  has  yet  been  made ; and  that  is  the  more 
wonderful,  inasmuch  as  it  is  practically  indestructible, 
retains  the  touch  of  the  artist  perfectly,  and  is  therefore 
like  a permanent  investment  of  art  power. 

Most  of  the  old  terra-cottas  have  been  modelled  in 
clay  solidly,  and  then  burnt.  That  is  not  the  best  way  : 
for  clay  shrinks  in  burning,  and  in  proportion  to  its  thick- 
ness, so  that  a thin  part  does  not  shrink  so  much  as  a 
thick  part ; thus  distortion  takes  place. 

I have  seen  a terra-cotta  which  had  been  burned  for 
two  days,  and  had  only  shrunk  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
in  two  feet  of  height ; and  that  is  practically  nothing. 
To  attain  to  that  perfection,  two  things  had  to  be  done  : 
first,  the  statuette  had  to  be  hollow,  and  all  parts  of  the 
same  thickness,  which  was  done  by  first  modelling  the 
figure,  taking  a mould  of  it,  and  then  pressing  or  squeez- 
ing the  fresh  clay  into  the  plaster  mould,  after  being 


240 


ART  EDUCATION. 


rolled  to  an  even  thickness  of  a quarter  of  an  inch ; 
second,  the  greater  portion  of  the  clay  was  composed  of 
ground  and  pulverized  burnt  clay,  in  the  shape  of  com- 
mon clay  tobacco-pipes  already  burnt,  and  which  had 
therefore  been  already  shrunk,  so  that  when  burnt  again 
it  did  not  shrink  at  all ; the  actual  shrinking  being,  in  the 
unburnt  clay,  necessary  to  bind  the  particles  together. 
The  result  was  imperishable  work,  clear  and  brilliant, 
every  touch  of  the  master's  hand  sharp  and  perfect ; 
and,  with  such  care,  terra-cotta  is  a beautiful  material. 

It  is  usually  regarded  as  a material  for  small  things 
only,  — sketches  and  details  ; but  I have  seen  a life-sized 
figure  made  as  I have  described,  and  burned  without  a 
crack  ora  flaw:  and,  if  opportunities  be  ever  given  here 
for  the  highest  class  of  professional  study,  it  is  one  of 
the  desires  I feel,  to  resuscitate  the  noble  art  of  terra- 
cotta upon  American  soil. 

The  most  notable  example  of  the  use  of  terra-cotta 
in  modern  days  is  in  the  construction  of  the  permanent 
portion  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  in  London. 
Every  fraction  of  t lie  facade,  in  a sort  of  Veuetian- 
Renaissance  style,  is  built  of  burnt  earth,  — the  main 
body  of  red  brick,  the  enriched  portions  of  cream-col- 
ored terra-cotta.  The  columns,  which  are  richly  cov- 
ered with  figures  emblematic  of  the  seven  ages  and  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  in  relief,  are  in  blocks  several  feet 
in  length  and  diameter,  and  the  string-courses  and 
mouldings,  and  wherever  the  main  color  of  red  brick  is 
relieved  by  the  lighter-colored  terra-cotta,  there  are  im- 
mense blocks  of  the  material  as  straight  and  square  as 
worked  stone  ; whilst  the  surface  is  as  hard  as  cast-iron, 
non-absorbent,  dead  in  surface,  and  almost  of  uniform 
color : where  the  color  is  varied,  the  variety  is  not  so 
great  as  in  the  veins  of  white  marble. 

Altogether  it  is  a brilliant  success:  and  it  has  these 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


241 


advantages  : the  miserable  climate  and  dense  atmosphere 
of  London  cannot  defile  it ; for  the  surface  is  hard  and 
smooth,  and  every  storm  of  rain  and  every  gale  of  wind 
remove  impurities  as  they  would  from  a white  plate ; 
and  fog  and  rain  are  not  altogether  unknown  in  the 
largest  city  in  the  world.  I examined  these  terra-cotta 
enrichments  in  September,  1871,  after  they  had  been 
exposed  for  several  years,  and  they  were  as  fresh  as  on 
the  day  of  their  erection ; whilst  stone-work  that  had 
been  up  as  long  was  as  black  as  the  inside  of  a chimney. 
The  entrance  hall  of  the  Museum  is  illustrated  on  the 
opposite  page,  and  will  give  you  some  idea  of  the  capa- 
bilities of  terra-cotta,  architecturally. 

The  clear  atmosphere  of  this  country,  and  the  absence 
of  a plethora  of  mill-chimneys,  do  not  so  loudly  call  for 
permanent  and  cleanly  decorations  of  buildings  as  Lon- 
don and  Manchester  do  in  the  old  country ; yet,  here  as 
there,  they  would  be  an  honest  and  pleasing  ornament, 
— art  work  and  hand  work,  fresh  and  eternal. 

We  express  our  unqualified  admiration  of  a man  who 
is  perfect  at  all  points,  by  saying,  in  Cockney  vernacular, 
“ He’s  a regular  brick.”  Might  we  not  describe  the 
superlative  of  this,  by  stating,  that  “ he’s  terra-cotta 
throughout ? ” 

There  seems  to  be  a prevailing  notion  that  terra-cotta 
must  be  red  : yet  there  are  at  least  three  other  colors 
of  which  it  may  be  composed  to  my  knowledge,  for  I 
have  seen  them ; viz.,  cream-color,  white,  and  gray  ; 
and  I have  no  doubt,  that,  by  admixture  of  oxides  of 
several  metals  with  the  clay,  almost  any  color,  or  tint 
of  color,  might  be  obtained. 

Encaustic  tiles,  which  are  another  form  of  terra-cotta, 
display  every  color  known  in  art,  except  gold  and  silver  ; 
and  their  colors  no  possible  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
can  destroy.  Even  when  the  earth  is  consumed  with  a 


242 


ART  EDUCATION. 


fervent  heat,  these  tiles  and  the  Greek  vases  will  be  left 
behind  us  as  a permanent  record  of  past  civilizations. 
You  may  reduce  all  the  pictures  in  the  world  to  tinder  ; 
melt  all  the  bronze  statues  until  they  run  in  the  gutters  ; 
calcine  the  marble  statues  into  plaster  of  Paris ; burn 
all  the  buildings  into  lime,  and  all  animal  creatures  and 
vegetation  into  ashes;  and  all  this  while  terra-cotta  will 
glow  red-hot,  and  remain  uninjured,  and  cool  down  again 
into  the  shape  we  fashioned  it.  It  is  the  noblest  of  all 
vehicles  for  the  expression  of  art.  It  may  be  difficult 
to  decide  what  else  it  is  we  do  which  would  be  even 
comparatively  permanent  in  any  great  universal  shock 
or  a relapse  into  barbarism. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  an  eclipse  of  European  and 
American  civilization  as  complete  as  that  of  ancient 
Greece,  or  a cessation  of  the  arts  as  thorough  as  in  the 
case  of  ancient  Egypt. 

What  would  be  left  behind  us  to  tell  the  future  peo- 
ples, budding  into  new  forms  of  civilization,  what  the 
pale-faced  ancient  races  did  in  their  confused  way  of 
living  ? After  a lapse  of  two  thousand  years,  our  pic- 
tures and  photographs  would  be  tinder  or  ashes ; our 
metals,  most  of  them,  corroded  and  destroyed,  — >an  odd 
bronze  coin  here  and  there  might  tell  what  our  circula- 
tion was  like  ; every  building  now  in  existence  would 
be  a heap  of  stones  or  a ruin  of  bricks,  or  be  scattered 
in  fragments  over  the  earth,  — except,  perhaps,  the 
Egyptian  pyramids.  And,  though  we  try  to  believe 
that  in  many  respects  our  civilization  is  greater  than  any 
other  yet  developed,  it  seems  to  me  that  in  the  arts,  at 
any  rate,  it  is  vastly  inferior  in  the  one  characteristic  of 
permanence. 

But  if  a straw  thrown  into  the  air  shows  which  way 
the  wind  blows,  and  a strong  tendency  in  one  direction 
is  an  indication  of  character,  then  never  did  wind  blow 


RELIEF  ORNAMENT. 


243 


so  bravely,  nor  public  sentiment  point  so  decidedly,  as 
now  it  does  towards  honest,  permanent  work. 

There  is  in  art  a reflex  of  social  life  : if  refined  and 
noble  and  original,  it  points  to  the  maturity  of  a race ; 
if  barbarous,  weak,  or  borrowed,  to  the  infancy  or  decay 
of  a race. 

Let  us  hope,  that,  in  the  youth  of  this  nation,  our  art 
progress  may  be,  if  slow,  permanent ; and,  if  youthful, 
the  youth  of  a glorious  manhood. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


AS  the  majority  of  persons  who  admire  the  beautiful 
sculptured  works  of  antiquity  can  only  have  the 
opportunity  of  studying  and  enjoying  them  through  the 
medium  of  plaster  casts,  I purpose  giving  such  infor- 
mation concerning  the  process  of  casting  as  will  show 
what  a good  cast  is,  and  that,  being  identical  with  the 
original,  it  may  afford  the  same  satisfaction  to  the  culti- 
vated eye. 

THE  PROCESS  OF  CASTING. 

Casting  is  an  effort  to  reproduce  the  exact  form  of  an 
object  by  mechanical  means,  in  the  same  way  that 
modelling  attempts  to  copy  the  character  and  form  by 
artistic  means.  Thus,  modelling  the  original  work  — a 
bust  or  a statue — is  the  work  of  an  artist;  casting  it, 
and  (supposing  it  to  be  in  marble)  even  carving  it,  is  a 
mechanical  process,  done  by  a mechanic.  This  state- 
ment must  be  qualified  by  saying,  that  to  carve  a marble 
bust,  even  by  mechanical  assistance  (the  use  of  the 
pointing-machine),  though  not  of  the  same  artistic  qual- 
ity of  work  as  producing  the  original,  yet  requires  the 
skill  of  a practised  modeller  also ; for,  without  such 
experience,  no  carver  would  be  allowed  by  a sculptor  to 
touch  his  marble. 


241 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


245 


In  bronze  and  metal  casting,  the  statue  or  statuette  is 
finished  by  the  chaser,  who  must  be  a good  art  work- 
man ; but  the  process  of  casting  the  work  from  the  plas- 
ter into  the  bronze  is  carried  out  by  laborers,  under  the 
direction  of  a skilled  founder. 

WASTE-MOULDS. 

Casting  from  the  clay  into  plaster  of  Paris  is  called 
waste-moulding,  because  the  mould  is  wasted  or  de- 
stroyed in  the  process  of  taking  it  from  the  cast ; and  it 
is  distinguished  from  the  after  process  of  reproducing 
casts  in  any  numbers  from  the  mould,  by  the  fact  that 
only  one  cast  can  be  obtained  from  a waste-mould  taken 
from  the  clay  model : whereas  a mould  for  the  purpose 
of  reproducing  casts,  taken  itself  from  a plaster  cast,  and 
called  a piece  mould,  or  safe  mould,  is  so  called  because 
a large  number  of  casts  may  be  taken  from  it  safely 
without  destroying  the  mould. 

A waste-mould,  then,  is  a mould  in  plaster  of  Paris,  or 
in  wax,  taken  either  from  a model  in  clay  or  from  some 
natural  form,  such  as  fruit,  foliage,  or  a human  hand  or 
face.  We  will  suppose  that  a clay  model  in  basso-relievo 
has  been  made,  and  it  is  required  to  reproduce  it  in 
plaster : the  following  is  the  method  by  which  it  will 
be  done,  using  a plaster  waste-mould.  The  clay  model 
will  be  sparely  sprinkled  with  water  about  ten  minutes 
before  the  mould  is  to  be  put  on,  to  make  its  surface 
slightly  damp  \ for  plaster  will  follow  water  into  thfe 
angles  and  small  crevices  of  the  model,  which  it  would 
not  otherwise  reach.  The  plaster  is  then  gaged,  or 
mixed  with  water ; and  thus,  it  being  settled  how  much 
water  will  be  required  to  make  a covering  of  half  an  inch 
thickness  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  model,  and  this 
water  being  placed  in  a white  glazed  earthenware  basin, 
the  moulder  takes  the  plaster  by  handfuls  and  shakes  it 


246 


ART  EDUCATION. 


over  the  side  of  his  hands  into  the  water,  letting  it  fall 
to  the  bottom.  This  is  repeated  until  the  plaster  begins 
to  appear  at  the  top  of  the  water ; and  the  superfluous 
water  at  the  top  of  the  plaster  should  then  be  poured 
away.  With  an  iron  or  wooden  spoon,  larger  than  a 
table-spoon,  the  plaster  is  then  beaten  up,  precisely  as 
an  egg  would  be  beaten,  for  perhaps  a third  of  a minute  ; 
and  it  ought  then  to  be  rather  thicker  than  good  cream. 
The  plaster  is  then  carefully  poured  over  the  model, 
care  being  taken  to  make  it  thoroughly  and  completely 
cover  the  surface,  the  first  coat  being  spread  evenly 
over,  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  must  be  left  for 
twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  to  allow  it  to  set,  — new 
or  quick  plaster  setting  five  minutes  sooner  than  old  or 
slow  plaster.  Having  set  as  hard  as.  a lump  of  chalk, 
this  first  ease  is  oiled  or  brushed  over  with  a mixture 
of  clay  and  water,  called  Italian  grease ; and  then  a 
second  coat  of  about  the  same  or  greater  thickness 
of  plaster  is  added  to  the  first.  The  object  of  putting 
the  mould  on  in  two  thicknesses  is,  that,  when  it  has  to 
be  chipped  away,  the  outer  case  comes  off  quite  easily, 
without  any  danger  to  the  cast,  and  the  thin  coat  can 
then  be  removed  with  much  less  difficulty  than  if  the 
whole  mould  had  to  be  chipped  away  in  one  thickness. 

When  the  outer  case  is  hard,  the  mould  and  model 
together  are  turned  over,  exposing  the  back  of  the  bass- 
relief,  and  the  clay  is  picked  out  of  the  mould.  The 
mould  is  washed  carefully,  and  eveiy  particle  of  claj' 
taken  from  it.  The  inner  surface  of  the  mould  is  then 
either  oiled  or  brushed  with  soap  and  water  to  give  the 
surface  a slightly  greasy  character,  so  that  it  will  leave 
the  cast  easily.  Very  skilful  moulders  sometimes  omit 
this  part  of  the  process,  relying  upon  great  experience 
in  chipping  off ; but  it  is  safer,  and  necessary  for  the  inex- 
perienced, to  grease  the  mould. 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


247 


The  mould  being  thus  prepared,  the  casting  may  be 
made.  The  plaster  is  gaged  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
the  mould,  and  poured  into  the  latter.  It  is  well  at  first 
to  pour  into  the  mould  about  one  fourth  enough  to  fill  it, 
and  then  to  shake  it  soundly,  so  as  to  insure  the  plaster 
running  into  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  mould. 
Then  the  remaining  plaster  is  poured  in,  and  the  back- 
ground of  the  relief  made  as  thick  as  required,  and  per- 
fectly smooth  at  the  back.  When  it  is  set  hard,  the 
chipping  away  of  the  mould  may  be  begun.  The  tools 
used  will  be  a mallet  of  wood,  about  three  or  four 
pounds  in  weight,  and  blunted  chisels  of  varying  sizes, 
— say  about  one-fourth,  one-third,  three-ftmrths,  of  an 
inch,  and  one  broad  chisel  of  about  an  inch  and  a half. 
The  outer  case  of  the  mould  is  removed  by  cracking 
it  off  with  gentle  taps  of  the  mallet  upon  a chisel, 
cutting  in  all  cases  at  right-angles  to  the  surface  of  the 
cast.  The  case  will  come  off  in  three  or  four  pieces, 
being  prized  or  levered  off ; and  then  comes  the  par- 
ticular part  of  the  process  of  casting  which  requires 
skill  and  the  greatest  care.  The  mould  which  remains 
will  be  about  half  an  inch  thick  everywhere ; but 
in  a few  places,  in  angles  of  the  model,  it  will  be 
sometimes  thicker.  It  is  best  to  find  a piece  of  the  cast 
by  chipping  off  a bit  of  the  mould  on  the  outside,  and 
then  to  follow  the  cast  by  chipping  off  small  bits,  not 
more  than  an  inch  square,  or  even  less,  until  a part  of  the 
model  be  reached.  Then  it  is  comparatively  an  easy 
matter  to  remove  in  the  same  way  all  the  remainder  of 
the  mould,  by  chipping  it  off  gradually,  holding  the  chisel 
firmly  in  the  left  hand  ; for,  if  it  be  allowed  to  slip,  very 
ugly  gashes  may  be  made  in  the  cast.  When  this  has 
been  accomplished,  the  moulder  has  to  gage  some  plas- 
ter very  thinly,  and  mend  up  his  mistakes ; for  the  best 
moulders  will  either  chip  off  or  cut  into  some  parts 
nf  the  cast. 


248 


ART  EDUCATION. 


Casting  from  foliage,  or  a hand  or  bird  from  nature, 
is  done  in  the  same  manner : but  that,  if  a leaf  be  the 
subject,  it  has  to  be  delicately  propped  up  behind,  so 
that  its  form  be  not  distorted ; and  the  plaster  should 
be  put  on  very  gradually  at  first,  so  that  its  weight  may 
not  force  the  leaf  out  of  shape,  or  flatten  its  projections 
of  surface.  In  casting  a hand  or  foot  or  face  from  the 
life,  the  moulder  must  be  an  expert,  or  he  will  torture 
his  subject,  and  produce  very  poor  work.  Provision 
must  be  made,  when  putting  on  the  mould,  for  its  being 
taken  off  without  removing  fingers  or  toes ; and  the 
best  way  of  securing  this  is  to  put  a piece  of  thin, 
tough  string  on  the  surface  of  the  hand  or  foot,  so  that, 
just  before  the  plaster  sets,  the  string  may  be  pulled 
off,  and  cut  the  mould  into  about  two  equal  parts, 
dividing  it  so  that  all  parts  of  the  flesh  will  be  relieved. 
In  casting,  the  mould  will  have  to  be  tied  tightly 
together,  and,  the  plaster  being  run  into  it,  be  Avell 
shaken  and  poured  out ; then  poured  in  again  and  filled 
up,  if  a solid  cast  is  to  be  made. 

All  other  parts  of  the  process  of  moulding  and  casting 
from  the  life  or  nature  are  the  same  as  from  the  clay. 

PIECE-MOULDING. 

The  way  in  which  the  majority  of  casts  are  repro- 
duced is  by  means  of  a piece-mould,  — a mould  made  in 
many  pieces,  — which  can  be  removed  safely  from  each 
cast  taken,  and  be  ready  for  the  next  cast.  The  process 
of  making  this  kind  of  mould  is  as  follows : a plaster 
cast  of  great  excellence  of  workmanship  is  selected  or 
prepared  for  reproduction,  and  is,  when  its  art  work- 
manship is  perfect,  thus  treated  by  the  moulder.  The 
cast  is  carefully  dried,  and  oiled  with  boiled  linseed  oil, 
applied  sparingly  with  a hog’s-hair  brush.  It  may, 
if  the  plaster  be  very  absorbent,  require  to  be  thus 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


249 


oiled  two  or  even  three  times.  Then  it  becomes  per- 
fectly smooth  and  non-absorbent.  Moulders  call  this 
cast  “ the  original .”  In  this  state,  it  is  ready  for  the 
piece-moulding  process.  We  will  suppose,  to  make  this 
description  simple,  that  it  be  required  to  make  a piece- 
mould  of  a cast  of  a spray  of  apples  and  foliage,  the 
apples  being  highly  relieved,  but  not  quite  in  the  round. 
It  is  required,  that,  when  the  cast  has  been  made,  the 
mould  shall  be  in  so  many  pieces,  that  each  will  come 
away  by  a slight  tap  of  the  hand,  and  be  uninjured. 
The  moulder  commences  then  by  placing  round  some 
prominent  part,  such  as  the  top  and  eye  of  the  apple,  a 
small  wall  of  clay  an  inch  deep,  leaving  the  piece  of  the 
cast  exposed  which  is  to  be  moulded.  He  mixes  his 
plaster,  and  fills  up  the  cavity.  When  it  is  set,  he  takes 
it  off  from  the  original,  and  cuts  its  edges  straight  and 
square,  with  a cunning  angle  known  as  the  contra-cut, 
and  which  any  Italian  moulder  will  show  the  curious 
inquirer.  The  next  piece  is  added  by  letting  the  first 
piece  make  part  of  the  wall,  and  some  clay  the  other 
part ; which  new  piece,  therefore,  perfectly  fits  the  first 
piece,  but  has  to  be  taken  off  when  set,  and  cut  square, 
cut  and  contra  cut,  where  it  has  touched  the  claju  In 
this  way  the  whole  surface  of  the  original  is  covered 
with  little  independent  bits  of  mould,  each  bit  drawing , 
i.e.,  coming  away  from  the  original,  without  breaking 
any  part  of  it,  or  bruising  its  own  surface ; to  insure 
which,  there  must  be  no  under-cut  in  any  one  piece,  or 
surface  cut  back  from  the  general  surface  of  the  piece. 
Thus,  in  an  apple,  two  pieces  would  not  relieve  round 
the  apple,  but  three  would  ; though,  if  an  apple  were  to 
be  piece-moulded  by  itself,  it  would  require  five  pieces, 
— one  for  the  top,  one  for  the  bottom,  and  three  round 
its  sides ; and  out  of  such  a mould  twenty  casts  could 
be  taken  of  good  quality  without  much  injury  to  the 
mould. 


250 


ART  EDUCATION. 


When  these  wedge-shaped  little  pieces  cover  the 
original,  a flat,  conical  hole  is  drilled  into  the  back  of 
each  one  : the  united  surfaces  of  the  backs  are  then  oiled, 
and  covered  by  a thick  case,  or  matrix,  of  plaster,  which 
holds  them  all  together  firmly  in  their  places  over  the 
original.  When  the  matrix  is  taken  off,  each  piece  of 
the  piece-mould  removed  from  the  original  will  be  found 
to  fit  into  its  place  in  the  matrix,  and  a perfect  mould  be 
thus  obtained.  Before  taking  casts  from  such  a mould, 
it  is  thoroughly  dried,  and  every  part  oiled  with  boiled 
linseed  oil  several  times,  which  hardens  them,  and  makes 
the  whole  mould  safe.  When  a cast  has  to  be  taken  out 
of  the  piece-mould,  the  surface  has  to  be  first  oiled  with 
fine  Lucca  oil,  used  very  sparingly  with  a stiff  hog’s-hair 
brush.  When  the  cast  is  set,  the  matrix  is  removed,  and 
each  piece  of  the  mould  tapped  with  the  butt-end  of  a 
chisel  ver}'  slightly,  or  even  with  the  knuckles ; and  it 
comes  off  easily,  and  is  replaced  in  the  matrix,  after 
being  wiped  with  a linen  rag  (the  inner  surface  having 
steam  from  the  new  cast  on  it),  ready  for  the  next  cast. 
In  the  cast  taken  from  a piece-mould,  there  will  be  little 
fines,  showing  the  junction  of  the  several  bits  of  the 
mould ; and  these  are  sometimes  erroneously  supposed 
to  show  where  the  cast  has  been  joined  together.  These 
fines  are,  in  fact,  the  means  whereby  a cast  may  be 
judged,  — a process  to  be  explained  farther  on. 


WAX-MOULDING. 

When  a subject  is  very  highly  relieved  from  its  back- 
ground, alto-relievo , a waste-mould  is  sometimes  made 
with  wax,  which  has  advantages  in  some  ways  over 
piaster.  Very  delicate  work,  highly  relieved,  like  the 
stems  of  flowers,  can  hardly  be  safely  trusted  to  a plas- 
ter waste-mould,  but  may  be  excellently  reproduced  by 
means  of  a wax-mould.  Though  called  wax-mould , the 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


251 


mould  is  really  a composition  of  wax  and  resin,  to  which 
may  be  added  with  advantage  a little  honey,  in  about 
the  proportion  of  wax,  one-third  ; resin,  two-thirds  ; and 
a table-spoonful  of  honey  for  every  ten  pounds  of  the  two 
other  materials.  These  are  heated  over  a stove  slowly, 
and  well  mixed,  but  never  allowed  to  boil.  To  make 
good  moulding  material  out  of  these  ingredients,  they 
should  be  melted  and  mixed,  and  poured  out  on  a wet 
slate  slab,  and  allowed  to  cool  and  shrink  two  or  three 
times.  When  cool,  the  material  should  be  like  toffee,  — 
only  not  greasy,  but  slightly  elastic.  Some  moulders  put  a 
little  Canada  balsam  into  the  compound,  instead  of  honey. 

When  the  model  to  be  cast  is  ready,  and  the  wax 
warmed  about  to  the  consistency  of  molasses,  a wall 
of  clay  as  high  as  the  average  height  in  relief  of  the 
model  is  put  round  its  edges,  and  the  wax  poured  on 
the  model  from  one  corner,  and  allowed  to  flow  from  it 
over  the  whole  surface,  the  higher  parts  being  covered 
with  spoonfuls  of  the  wax,  dashed  over  them.  When 
this  coat  of  wax  is  cold,  it  is  oiled  or  greased,  and  a 
plaster  case  is  put  over  it.  The  clay  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  mould  with  great  care,  as  the  material  is 
brittle  and  tender ; and  water  should  be  freely  used  to 
wash  out  the  clay,  and  harden  the  surface  of  the  mould. 
The  cast  is  made  as  in  plaster  waste-moulding  ; and, 
when  set,  the  outer  plaster  case  is  removed  with  mallet 
and  chisel,  leaving  the  wax-mould  to  be  dealt  with.  This 
mould  should  be  placed  in  front  of  a moderate  fire  for 
half  an  hour,  or  until  it  is  warmed  through,  and  will 
bend  easily  ; and  sometimes  hot  water  should  be  allowed 
to  stand  on  the  wax  surface  until  the  wax  is  thoroughly 
warmed.  Then,  taking  one  end  of  the  mould,  by  a 
regular  pressure,  and  very  slowly,  it  may  be  pulled  off, 
leaving  the  cast  without  a mark  or  a chip.  The  danger 
is,  in  taking  off  the  wax,  that  hasty  removal  or  irregular 


252 


ART  EDUCATION. 


pressure  may  snap  off  little  projections  or  very  round 
parts  ; but  that  can  only  result  from  inexperience  or  care- 
less work.  There  may  be  thin,  threadlike  seams  in 
places  where  the  wax  has  flowed  from  two  sides  and 
met:  for,  as  the  wax  flows,  the  cold  surface  of  the  model 
cools  it ; and,  where  two  streams  meet,  they  will  not  join 
perfectly  on  the  clay  surface.  For  this  reason,  the  wax 
should,  as  much  as  is  possible,  be  run  on  from  one  place 
only.  The  seams,  however,  are  so  thin  that  an  ivory 
modelling-tool  will  remove  them  easily. 

The  more  the  wax  is  used,  the  better  it  becomes ; and, 
if  it  becomes  too  elastic,  resin  is  added ; if  too  brittle, 
wax  is  added  : and  the  same  wax  may  be  used  any  num- 
ber of  times  without  deterioration. 

GELATINE  MOULDING. 

Gelatine  is  sometimes  used  for  safe-moulding  for  bass- 
reliefs,  instead  of  plaster,  though  it  is  not  as  accurate. 
The  gelatine  mould  leaves  no  seams  or  mould-marks, 
and  thus  has  one  advantage  over  the  plaster-mould  ; for 
when  such  marks  are  removed  by  unskilful  hands,  as  is 
generally  the  case,  much  of  the  beauty  of  the  cast  is 
destroyed. 

The  material  is  common  glue,  or  a superior  kind 
called  gelatine.  This  is  soaked  in  cold  water  until  it 
is  elastic,  without  snapping,  and  thus  put  into  a tin 
sauce-pan,  and  warmed  until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of 
molasses : it  is  then  ready  for  use. 

The  cast  is  thus  prepared : An  even  thickness  of 
modelling-clay  is  rolled  out,  and  placed  all  over  the  cast. 
Over  this  a plaster  case  is  put ; and  a second  case  is  put 
over  the  bottom  of  the  cast,  which  will  hold  it  exactly 
in  the  same  position  in  the  upper  case,  when  the  clay 
is  removed,  as  it  does  before  the  clay  is  taken  away. 
When  the  clay  is  removed,  and  the  plaster  cases  put 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


253 


together,  the  cast  being  left  in  its  place,  there  will  be 
a vacuum  between  the  case  and  cast  of  the  thickness  of 
the  removed  clay.  A hole  is  cut  through  the  upper  case  ; 
and,  the  two  being  firmly  tied  together,  the  gelatine, 
prepared  as  described,  is  poured  through  the  hole  in 
the  case,  and  fills  up  the  vacuum  left  by  the  clay.  The 
gelatine  is  left  for  a space  of  twenty-four  hours  to  cool ; 
for  if  removed  before  that  time,  or  before  it  is  quite  cold, 
it  will  shrink,  and  spoil  the  mould  ; but,  when  it  is  cold 
and  firm,  the  cast  can  be  taken  out : and  then,  the  sur- 
face of  the  mould  being  oiled,  a new  cast  may  be  taken, 
with  this  care,  that,  as  plaster  heats  when  setting,  the 
mould  must  be  taken  off  from  the  cast  before  the  heat 
melts  its  surface,  or  that  will  destroy  the  mould.  The 
mould  is  elastic,  like  a piece  of  india-rubber,  and,  when 
removed,  will  spring  back  into  its  place,  ready  for  an- 
other cast.  Not  more  than  twenty  casts  should  be  taken 
from  one  mould,  and  then  the  old  mould  be  melted  up 
again,  and  recast.  As  in  the  case  of  wax,  the  material 
may  be  used  as  often  as  necessary. 

Greater  skill  is  used  in  taking  casts  by  this  process 
than  by  any  other ; and  the  odd  distortions  sometimes 
seen  in  cheap  casts  result  from  the  overworking  and 
abuse  of  elastic  moulds. 

SULPHUR-MOULD  ENG. 

This  process  is  used  only  for  casting  very  small  and 
delicate  work,  in  which  there  is  no  relief,  such  as  gems, 
medals,  coins  ; and  a very  famous  reduction  of  the  Elgin 
frieze  in  the  British  Museum  has  been  so  produced. 
Where  there  is  undercutting,  it  cannot  be  used  ; for  the 
mould  must  be  in  one  piece,  and  draw  easily,  or  the 
casts  will  be  spoiled.  The  plaster  must  also  be  super- 
fine, of  the  highest  quality,  to  get  very  good  casts  out 
of  sulphur-moulds. 


254 


ART  EDUCATION. 


The  processes  a simple  one.  Brimstone  is  melted  in  a 
slow  caldron  with  care,  until  it  becomes  as  thin  as  milk 
or  cream.  The  medal  or  coin  being  prepared,  bjT  a wall 
of  clay  or  pasteboard  having  been  placed  round  it,  as  high 
as  the  mould  should  be,  from  one  to  two  inches,  the  melted 
brimstone  is  poured  over  it.  As  it  is  cooling,  iron 
filings  should  be  filed  into  it,  or  shaken  in  from  a fine 
sieve,  which  will  much  strengthen  the  mould.  The 
casts  are  taken  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  very  finest  oil 
procurable  being  used  for  the  surface  of  the  mould  each 
time  a cast  is  taken. 

In  using  the  sulphur  for  a second  mould,  it  should, 
when  heated,  be  poured  off  into  another  caldron,  leav- 
ing the  iron  filings  at  the  bottom  of  the  first ; for,  if 
these  get  on  to  the  surface  of  the  second  mould,  it  will 
be  spoiled.  An  earthenware  pipkin  is  the  best  vessel  in 
which  to  melt  the  brimstone  ; which,  when  melting, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  boil,  or  even,  as  housewives 
would  express  it,  simmer. 

GOOD  AJSTD  BAD  CASTS. 

It  may  be  of  some  use  to  the  lovers  of  sculpture  to 
know,  by  outward  signs  of  workmanship,  a good  cast 
from  a bad  one  ; and  therefore  I propose  to  explain 
them.  Casts  on  sale  will  either  have  been  produced  by 
plaster  piece-moulds,  wax  piece-moulds  (which  are 
similar  but  inferior  to  those  in  plaster,  and  therefore 
need  not  be  referred  to),  or  gelatine  moulds,  in  the  case 
of  all  subjects  larger  than  gems.  Nine-tenths  of  the 
casts  sold  are  made  by  plaster  piece-moulds.  Upon 
these  casts,  the  seams,  or  mould-marks,  will  either  be 
left,  or  they  will  have  been  removed.  The  connoisseur 
should  never  purchase  a cast  when  the  seams  have  been 
removed,  unless  he  can  trust  the  moulder  who  does  it, 
but  either  take  them  off  himself,  or  employ  a skilful 


Encaustic  Tile  Pavements. 


VII. 


Hall  Pavements. 


\ A 

7~^ 

W-4 

7“T 
k A 

7~X 

\ A 

r~x 
\ A 

7-T3 

^ A 

7 % 

\ A 

7 V 

'tX 
\ A 

7 v 

7 X 

\ A 

7 V 

\ A 

7 

\ A 

V X 

7 X 

7 X 
\ A 

7 V 

\ A 

7 N 

\-4 

7 x 
\ A 

7 VI 

b-A 

7 \ 

7 M 

fc  A 

v x 
h a 

7 \ 

\ A 

7 X 
br-A 

7 N 

7 X 

7X 

fc  A 

tX 
U A 

7 X 
fc  A 

7 X 
rk  A 

7 X 

w 

' X 

h A 

7 X 
^ A 

h A 

V X 
h A 

7 V 
h A 

tX 
^ A 

7\ 

U A 

> N 

KN 

7 X 

7 X 

rX 

7 X 

7 X 

Pavement  and  Tile  Borders. 


IX. 


Pavement  and  Tile  Borders. 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


255 


modeller  to  do  it  for  him.  If,  however,  the  moulder  be 
accredited  by  either  a government  department  or  any 
acknowledged  society  of  dilettanti , their  credentials  will 
be  sufficient  evidence  of  trustworthiness.  In  any  case, 
it  will  be  safe  to  stipulate,  that,  in  removing  the  mould- 
marks,  no  sand-paper  nor  emery-paper  shall  be  used,  — 
nothing  but  a wooden  tool  (if  the  cast  be  new,  or  steel 
if  it  be  old),  and  Dutch  rush  for  the  finer  work,  — 
Dutch  rush  being  a ribbed  grass,  used  for  fine  abrasion. 

A cast  can  only  be  well  judged  before  the  mould- 
marks,  or  seams,  are  removed ; and  therefore  it  has  been 
recommended  that  they  be  so  purchased.  If  the  seams 
be  very  thin,  and  no  piece  of  the  cast  either  project 
more,  or  be  sunk  lower  than  the  next  piece  to  it,  it  is 
probably  a good  cast.  The  seams  ought  not  to  be 
thicker  than  thread.  If  they  be  as  thick  as  fine  string, 
or  if  angular  projections  are  found  at  the  junction  of 
two  pieces  of  the  mould,  the  cast  has  been  taken  from 
an  old  and  worthless  mould,  and  should  be  rejected. 

When  casts  have  been  taken  from  gelatine  safe- 
moulds,  it  requires  more  skill  to  detect  whether  they  are 
good  or  bad.  The  most  reliable  test  is  by  passing  the 
fourth  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the  ring  finger  (usually 
the  most  sensitive  part  of  either  hand),  carefully  over 
any  rounded,  projecting  part ; and,  if  it  be  perfectly 
smooth,  the  cast  must  have  been  taken  from  a new 
mould.  But  that  is  not  all  the  test  required.  Any 
practised  modeller  or  sculptor  will  be  able  to  tell  by 
the  general  appearance  whether  the  mould  was  a good 
one,  made  of  well-shrunk  gelatine ; but  a connoisseur, 
in  the  absence  of  technical  knowledge,  should  compare 
the  cast  from  gelatine  with  one  which  has  been  taken 
from  plaster,  especially  in  the  most  sunk  portions  of 
the  cast ; and  if  the  angles  and  crevices  be  sharp,  and 
generally  like  the  plaster-moulded  cast,  he  may  trust  to 


256 


ART  EDUCATION. 


its  general  accuracy.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  be 
blurred  parts  or  little  projections  on  the  surface,  where 
they  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  original,  the  cast  will 
be  bad, — taken  from  an  old  mould,  or  one  which  has 
been  used  hastily  before  it  was  well  seasoned. 

Any  one  buying  a cast  from  which  the  seams  have 
been  already  removed  must  trust  to  his  knowledge  of  the 
original,  or  art  knowledge.  But  he  will  be  compara- 
tively safe,  if  he  unconditionally  rejects  every  cast  upon 
which  sand-paper  or  emery-paper  has  been  used.  The 
images  sold  by  venders  in  the  streets  have  usually  had 
all  character  taken  out  of  them  by  this  method  of  finish. 
The  common  plasterman,  in  his  desire  to  make  his 
images  look  smooth  and  finished,  always  makes  smooth- 
ness his  first  object,  and  with  coarse  paper,  often  upon 
a rough  cast  to  begin  with,  grinds  away  all  imperfec- 
tions of  used-up  moulds,  and  every  atom  of  character 
into  the  bargain.  A good  mould  is  a costly  implement, 
and  will  never  be  found  in  the  hands  of  any  but  first- 
rate  workmen  ; and  it  is  impossible  to  get  a good  cast 
from  a bad  mould.  Those  who  have  seen  wretched 
engravings  from  worn-out  plates  may  form  some  idea 
of  what  a cast  is  which  must  be  sand-papered  before  it 
is  salable. 

Thus,  though  a good  cast  is  to  the  artist  and  art-lover 
just  as  attractive  and  beautiful  as  the  original  work, 
though  it  may  not  be  associated  with  the  same  senti- 
ment, a bad  cast  is  abhorred  of  all  who  love  the  good, 
as  a distorted  libel  upon  the  original. 

The  painting  of  casts  preserves  them  from  discolora- 
tion, and  is  recommended,  if  it  can  be  well  done.  But 
ordinary  house-painters  and  decorators  will  destroy  the 
finest  casts  if  allowed  to  treat  them  as  they  like.  A 
cast  which  is  to  be  painted  should  have  its  seams 


CASTING  AND  CASTS. 


257 


removed,  because  these  seams  clog  the  paint,  and  de- 
stroy the  sharpness  of  the  cast.  The  paint  should  be 
as  thin  as  milk ; and  a cast  may  have  six  coats  of  such 
paint  without  injury  : but  it  must  also  have  two  coats  of 
oil  before  the  first  coat  of  paint.  When  the  casts  have 
become  dirty,  they  should  be  washed  with  a soft  linen 
rag  with  a solution  of  water  and  soda,  — an  ounce  of 
soda  to  a gallon  of  water,  — which  will  bring  them  as 
clean  and  fresh  as  when  first  painted.  In  schools 
of  art,  casts  require  to  be  painted  when  used  for  light 
and  shade ; but,  for  connoisseurs,  the  most  satisfactory 
way  of  preserving  casts,  and  securing  them  originally,  is 
to  purchase  them  with  the  seams  on,  not  to  have  the 
seams  removed,  and,  instead  of  having  them  painted,  give 
them  two  coats  of  boiled  oil,  at  an  interval  of  three 
days  between  each  coat,  and  have  it  applied,  in  the 
summer  to  insure  absorption.  The  casts  must  be  thor- 
oughly dry,  or  the  oil  will -never  dry.  Casts  so  pre- 
pared become  gradually  the  color  of  old  ivoiy  or  marble 
which  has  stood  the  weather : they  become  seasoned, 
and  beautiful  in  tint,  and  harder  than  those  prepared 
in  any  other  way  ; and  an  artist  loves  his  casts  thus 
prepared  better  than  by  other  means.  Whiteness  in 
painted  casts  should  be  avoided:  a slight  tint  of  yellow 
ochre  or  Indian  red  and  black,  just  sufficient  to  take 
the  rawness  off  the  white  paint,  is  an  improvement. 
Casts  in  use  in  schools  of  art  and  drawing-classes 
should  be  protected,  if  hanging  upon  a wall,  by  a pro- 
jecting shelf,  — as  shown  in  the  fitting-up  of  the  ele- 
mentary-room, — which  will  prevent  their  being  touched. 
A regulation  of  every  school  should  be,  that,  under  no 
circumstances,  are  casts  to  be  touched  by  the  students  ; 
that  being  done,  when  necessary,  by  the  teachers.  The 
casts  should  be  dusted  daily  with  a feather  brush,  never 


258 


ART  EDUCATION. 


by  any  thing  harder.  Very  delicate  casts  from  nature, 
either  of  hands  or  foliage,  may  be  protected  by  glass, 
and  will  in  this  manner  keep  fresh  and  clean  for  years ; 
the  light  and  shade  showing  as  clearly  through  the  glass 
as  it  does  without  it. 


CHAPTER  X. 

ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 

THE  study  of  architecture,  whether  to  the  antiqua- 
rian or  the  lover  of  art,  may  be  truly  described  as 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  absorbing  of  subjects. 
To  it  all  the  dependent  constructional  and  decorative 
arts  are  allied,  as  the  leaves  and  flowers  are  to  the  tree, 
— the  final  developments  of  its  life  and  beauty,  or  ex- 
pressions of  its  decay  and  death.  We  are  not  now 
about  to  consider  the  tree,  but  one  of  its  many  blossoms, 
— architectural  enrichments. 

Architecture,  the  great  and  venerated  parent  of  the 
arts,  though  considered  only  through  its  subordinate 
details  of  ornamentation,  might  well  have  taken  prece- 
dence of  other  less  important  branches  of  design ; but 
it  seems  safe  to  me  that  we  should  approach  the  greater 
theme  through  the  less,  and,  by  arriving  at  main  prin- 
ciples in  less  important  subjects,  be  enabled  to  form  a 
sound  judgment  upon  the  highest. 

For  this  reason  I have  preferred  that  we  should  seek 
after  truth  in  the  byways,  and  that  lastly  our  inqui- 
ries shall  turn  in  the  direction  of  the  great  highway  of 
architecture.  Man  is  not  the  only  architect,  though  he 
is  the  principal ; for  to  many  creatures  besides  our- 
selves has  been  communicated  the  desire  to  create  a 
material  home. 

Yet  as  if  to  suggest  higher  thoughts,  and  to  reveal 
the  essential  difference  between  man,  whose  mission  is 

259 


260 


ART  EDUCATION. 


to  conquer  the  earth  and  subdue  it,  and  the  fowls  of 
the  air  and  beasts  of  the  field,  which  only  exist  and  pos- 
sess the  earth,  the  architecture  of  man,  the  builder,  is 
various  and  ever-changing,  as  though  seeking  after  the 
perfect ; whilst  that  of  the  inferior  creatures  is  forever 
the  same,  stereotyped  in  all  its  features  and  unchange- 
able. The  spider  spins  the  same  web,  the  silkworm  the 
same  cocoon,  as  its  ancestors ; the  bird  builds  the  same 
nest,  and  uses  the  same  materials,  as  its  parents ; the  hare 
rests  in  the  same  form,  and  the  lion  reclines  in  a similar 
den,  as  hares  and  lions  have  always  inhabited.  NowTas 
in  the  ages  that  are  past,  and  in  the  times  lost  in  the 
remotest  antiquities,  so  also  at  the  present  time  “the. 
high  hills  are  a refuge  for  the  wild  goats,  and  so  are  the 
stony  rocks  for  the  conies  ; ” but,  in  contrast  to  this, 
each  succeeding  civilization,  every  distinct  creed,  has 
had  among  men  its  own  form  of  expression  and  its  own 
kind  of  development  architecturally. 

I know  of  no  better  illustration  of  the  difference 
between  instinct  and  reason  than  that ; between  the 
beasts  that  perish  and  the  man  created  in  God’s  own 
image  than  that,  whilst  they  simply  reproduce,  man 
recreates ; whilst  they  repeat  onty,  man  reforms  ; and 
this  indicates  the  great  spiritual  and  organic  variety,  — 
the  difference  between  repetition  and  re-formation,  the 
distinction  between  the  merely  animal  and  the  man,  — 
the  beasts  who  are  said  to  perish,  and  the  man  who  is 
immortal.  Not  only  do  different  generations  of  the 
same  race  entirely  vary  in  the  character  of  the  buildings 
they  erect,  but  different  individuals  in  the  same  genera- 
tion require  an  entirely  original  design  for  the  homes 
they  make.  There  is  nothing  more  distressing  to  a 
cultivated  taste  than  sameness  in  the  highest  forms 
of  art,  and  nothing  more  destructive  of  originality  than 
the  repetition  of  important  forms.  We  unfortunately, 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


261 


many  of  us,  have  to  live  in  rows  of  houses,  all  alike, 
just  as  some  of  the  weakest  of  us,  driven  by  poverty, 
or  compelled  by  misfortune,  or  enslaved  by  our  own 
vices,  have  to  wear  liveries,  or  uniforms,  or  clothing 
supplied  to  us  out  of  the  rates;  but  we  don’t  keep 
that  up  when  once  our  backs  are  turned  on  the  kindly 
institutions  which  have  given  us  the  workhouse  cos- 
tume or  the  regulation  Sing-Sing  uniform. 

That  system  of  blocks  or  rows  of  similar  houses  is 
one  of  the  evils  resulting  from  an  unequal  division  of 
money  and  education,  and  a lax  state  of  the  law,  whereby 
any  man  who  has  a bit  of  money  to  spare  forthwith  tri- 
umphs over  his  neighbors,  by  erecting  strings  of  tumble- 
down  contractors’  houses  to  sell,  and  assumes  the  right 
of  compelling  others  to  wear  his  shabby  livery  for  the 
rest  of  his  days.  No  other  races  of  creatures  are  so 
tyrannized  over  as  men  are  in  that  respect.  I live  in  a 
row  of  houses  myself,  which  are  all  so  identical,  that,  to 
find  my  own  at  night,  I have  to  count  doors  from  one 
end,  or  take  bearings  from  objects  on  the  other  side  of 
the  square ; the  numbers  on  the  doors  being  invisible  in 
the  darkness.  That  is  living  in  a uniform,  just  as  put- 
ting on  the  Sing-Sing  dress  is  wearing  a uniform ; and 
neither  of  them  indicates  a right  state  of  things. 
Wherever  men  degenerate  into  uniforms,  it  is  an  indica- 
tion of  either  weakness  or  wickedness ; and  when  it  is 
necessary,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  patriotic  soldier,  or  the 
friendly  policeman,  that  is  a confession  of  turbulence  and 
lawlessness  among  our  neighbors  or  ourselves,  which 
requires  liveried,  disciplined,  human  machinery  to  con- 
trol or  put  down. 

I know  of  no  parallel  authenticated  cases  of  this  habit 
of  body  in  the  lower  creatures,  unless  the  convention- 
alism of  Fable  may  be  taken  as  an  authority  ; and  then 
it  seems  to  me  that  I once  read  of  a certain  donkey  who 


262 


ART  EDUCATION. 


clothed  himself  with  a lion’s  skin,  and  a certain  jackdaw 
who  decorated  himself  with  a peacock’s  feathers  ; and, 
if  I remember  rightly,  neither  of  these  experiments  ended 
happily. 

The  peculiar  charm  of  individualism  in  architecture 
may  best  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  old  Flemish  and  Ger- 
man cities,  where  each  house  is  harmoniously  associated 
with  its  neighbors  on  either  side,  but  entirely  different 
from  them  ; the  gables  and  gablets  and  fleches  and  quaint 
dormers,  the  carving  and  metal  work  and  oriel- windows, 
varied  in  each,  yet  together  forming  a general  effect  rich 
in  character,  and  delightful  to  the  eye.  A stroll  at 
Frankfort  or  Malines  or  Antwerp  is  as  interesting  as 
being  in  a good  picture-gallery ; and  no  man  of  taste 
can  see  these  beautiful  old  houses  without  comparing 
the  originality  of  other  days  with  the  monotony  and 
sameness  of  these. 

And  yet  the  people  who  have  left  behind  them  these 
art  relics  and  sources  of  delight  to  posterity  were  not 
richer  than  we  are ; i.e.,  they  had  no  more  money  than 
we  have : but  I suspect  they  were  a good  deal  wealthier 
than  we  are.  — used  their  means  for  weal  rather  than 
woe  ; for  riches  are  not  necessarily  wealth,  but  merely 
unnatural  accumulations  of  mone}',  and  wealth  is  its 
possession  for  the  highest  and  best  purposes  ; none  being 
higher  and  better  than  ministering  to  the  intellectual  and 
spiritual  wants  of  mankind ; few  channels  being  more 
permanent  than  the  perennial  delight  afforded  by  good 
art,  none  more  generous  than  that  which  provides  an 
external  sculpture  gallery,  made  by  noble  architecture, 
open  to  the  sight  of  all  created  beings. 

There  is  something  to  be  learned  from  that  distinction 
between  riches  and  wealth,  not  often  well  considered, 
and  which  may  be  of  use  to  us  architecturally,  as  well  as 
socially. 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


263 


The  merely  rich  man,  who  possesses  his  riches  only 
for  himself,  may  be  compared  to  a stagnant  pool  of 
water  : the  wealthy  man  is  like  a river  that  fertilizes  the 
valley  in  which  it  flows,  and  illustrates  that  grand  old 
proverb,  “ There  is  that  scattereth,  and  yet  increaseth.” 

Now,  I fear  that  in  modern  days  we  are  in  the*  habit 
— to  put  it  in  the  vernacular  of  to-day  — of  investing  our 
art  love  rather  in  personal  property  than  in  real  estate,  — 
in  movable,  destructible  things,  which  may  make  us  per- 
sonally rich,  but  which  do  not  contribute  to  the  com- 
mon weal,  or  common  wealth,  of  our  race ; and  just  in 
proportion  as  we  do  so  we  are  rich,  but  not  wealthy. 

Those  quiet  old  Germans  and  Flemish  citizens,  who  left 
behind  them  that  which  sends  us  thousands  of  miles  to 
see,  were  wealthier  than  we  are  on  all  counts ; and  their 
works  testify  to  it  to  this  day.  In  the  times  they  lived, 
the  house  was  the  home  of  a family  ; upon  it  was  lav- 
ished affection  as  well  as  money,  and  the  outside  was  as 
beautiful  as  the  inside  was  domestic  and  comfortable  ; 
neither  outside  nor  inside  monopolizing  the  art  of  the 
fabric. 

I wish  that  those  who  have  the  means  to  do  so  would 
follow  their  example,  and  make  it  as  great  a delight  to 
walk  in  the  streets  of  a modern  city  as  it  is  to  wander 
through  an  ancient  town  ; instead  of  erecting  tempo- 
rary, flippant,  or  monotonous  furnished  lodgings,  build 
homes  for  their  families,  so  permanent,  solid,  and  beau- 
tiful that  they  will  communicate  stability  and  refine- 
ment to  the  races  of  which  they  are  the  cradle,  — sanc- 
tuaries, where  the  sacred  relationships  of  parents  and 
children  shall  be  consecrated  by  the  hallowing  influence 
of  beautiful  art ; and  which  shall  be,  within  and  without, 
at  the  hearthstone  and  in  the  gabled  windows,  truth, 
strength,  and  beauty.  For  let  it  not  be  supposed  that 
this  outward  manifestation  of  - our  character  is  uninflu- 


264 


ART  EDUCATION. 


eutial.  Tlie  character  and  attainments  of  a people  may 
be  fairly  estimated  by  the  houses  in  which  they  live, 
taken  on  a broad  average  ; and  men  grow  into  the  like- 
ness of  their  surrounding  influences,  or,  when  these  are 
less  strong  than  men’s  wills,  they  are  changed  into  the 
expression  of  those  wills.  There  is  a marked  difference 
between  the  general  character  of  the  dwellers  in  an 
ancient  cathedral  city  and  the  inhabitants  of  a modern 
manufacturing  town  ; and  the  difference  is  not  always  in 
favor  of  the  latter. 

There  is  a better  tone  amongst  the  people  who  live  in 
the  best  parts  of  a town  than  among  those  who  inhabit 
the  worst,  not  to  be  wholly  explained  by  social  circum- 
stances nor  variety  of  occupations.  The  same  family 
which  dwells  in  the  trim  and  picturesque  cottage,  peace- 
able, industrious,  and  constructive  members  of  society, 
if  removed  from  it,  and  made  to  burrow  among  the 
wretched  shanties  in  the  slums  of  a big  city,  will  degen- 
erate into  idleness,  turbulence,  and  destructiveness. 

I have  seen  the  character,  not  only  of  a whole  city, 
but  of  a communit}",  changed  by  the  influence  of  archi- 
tecture ; in  which,  up  to  a certain  date,  there  was  no 
civil  building  deserving  to  be  called  architectural,  and 
where  there  was  an  almost  total  lack  of  institutions  for 
the  amelioration  of  social  defects,  except  those  compelled 
by  law,  — the  workhouse  and  the  jail.  The  art  influence 
was  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  and  some  noble  buildings 
were  erected,  out  of  all  character  with  every  thing  that 
surrounded  them.  It  was  stanehly  maintained  that  the 
beautiful  was  as  economical  in  the  long  run  as  the  plain 
or  the  ugly,  and  had  a better  effect  on  the  character  of 
the  people  and  reputation  of  the  town.  People  pondered 
over  that,  and  were  converted.  In  new  fabrics,  archi- 
tects were  employed  as  well  as  builders  ; and  each  suc- 
ceeding building  made  a stride  upon  the  last.  Old 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


265 


streets  were  pulled  down,  and  new  ones  erected  in  tlieir 
places,  employing  all  the  resources  of  art ; and  people 
were  forced  to  see  that  the  best  citizens  thought  that 
making  money  could  be  combined  with  decency  and 
order,  and  that  commerce  need  not  be  enshrouded  in 
dismal  garments,  but  come  to  them  clad  in  the  pleasing 
raiments  of  beauty,  as  delightful  to  the  eye  as  its  pur- 
suit was  profitable  and  gratifying  to  the  pocket. 

I watched  this  change,  and  noted,  that  precisely  in  the 
proportion  that  mere  money-grabbing  ceased  wholly  to 
absorb  people’s  faculties,  and  this  new  element  of  a love 
of  the  beautiful  was  introduced  into  their  thoughts  ; so 
an  awakening  to  the  performance  of  other  social  and 
moral  duties  followed,  — a gradual  elevation  of  the  moral 
sentiment,  initiated  by  art.  The  wretched  workhouse, 
where  the  poor  or  the  unfortunate  were  thrust  as  sheep 
into  a slaughter-house  or  wild  beasts  into  a den,  gave 
place  to  a handsome  building,  where  poverty  was  not 
treated  as  a crime,  nor  misfortune  made  more  bitter  by 
cruel  hardships.  The  fold  courts  and  alleys,  where  rapa- 
cious landlords  ravished  the  poor  because,  they  were  in 
their  nets,  now  attracted  the  attention  of  persons  who 
did  not  want  their  city  to  be  like  a whited  sepulchre, — 
fair  without  and  foul  within  ; and,  both  municipally  and 
by  private  enterprise,  pleasant  and  healthy  homes  were 
provided  in  place  of  these  wretched  habitations,  whilst 
men  who  would  invest  their  money  in  running  up  houses 
for  the  poor  were  taught,  that,  unless  they  could  afford  to 
build  them  decently  and  well,  they  would  not  be  allowed 
to  build  them  at  all,  and  would  have  to  seek  other  invest- 
ments for  their  superfluous  capital. 

The  waste  places,  where  of  old  the  children  defiled 
themselves  in  the  companionship  of  ancient  refuse  and 
departed  cats,  were  cleansed,  and  made'into  gymnasiums 
and  playgrounds ; some  questionable  places  of  amuse- 


266 


ART  EDUCATION. 


ments  were  swept  away ; and  the  most  beautiful  and 
romantic  old  park  in  the  locality,  which  had  been  ripen- 
ing into  beauty  since  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth, 
was  purchased,  and  made  into  a place  of  public  recrea- 
tion and  resort. 

That  took  twenty  years  to  develop ; and  if  you  ask 
me  what  was  the  prime,  unconscious  cause  of  it  all,  I 
should  say,  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  initiated  by  good 
architecture.  This  is  no  ideal  sketch  of  a theoretical 
possibility,  but  a real  outline  of  an  accomplished  fact. 

I have  noticed  that  tangible  and  material  good  comes 
frequently  as  a result  of  the  cultivation  of  faculties  in 
us  which  are  not  directly  useful  in  a material  point  of 
view. 

You  may  inquire  of  me,  why  I dwell  upon  these 
points  before  I come  to  the  practical  part  of  my  subject ; 
and  my  answer  will  be,  because  it  is  at  the  foundation 
of  what  I have  to  say.  If  art  in  any  shape  were  only 
the  occupation  of  idle  fingers,  and  useful  only  as  the 
means  for  gratification  of  curiosity,  then  it  would  be  un- 
worthy of  your  attention  or  my  examination.  I take  it 
that  the  reason  whv  you  and  I find  ourselves  writing  or 
reading  this,  is  because  we  regard  art  work  as  of  some 
importance  to  that  delicate  structure  called  the  human 
mind ; and  we  can  only  grasp  the  subject  by  comprehend- 
ing the  first  principles  on  which  art  is  founded. 

A great  deal  of  the  distinction  between  building  and 
architecture,  between  use  and  beauty,  consists  in  under- 
standing the  true  position  of  each  in  relation  to  man’s 
necessities  and  his  aspirations.  And  this  understanding 
is  based  on  knowledge  of  many  things  besides  the  actual 
subject  under  consideration.  We  want  to  know  why 
mankind  wants  art  at  all,  and  then  what  it  is  wanted 
for,  before  we  come  to  the  question  of  what  kind  of  art 
will  meet  the  demand,  and  have  the  effect  and  influence 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


267 


sought.  And  then  we  can  supply  this  need ; and,  in  the 
natural  order,  the  minister  becomes  the  leader,  — that 
which  has  been  the  delight  and  solace  of  the  unearthly 
part  of  our  existence  supports  and  leads  us,  and  holds 
up  the  standard  of  our  best  days  to  help  us  through  our 
worst.  The  most  matured  embodiment  in  art  of  the 
most  highly-cultured  minds  strikes  the  key-note  ; and 
we  join  in  the  chorus. 

Yet  it  is  not  by  looking  at  any  phase  of  art  in  detail 
that  we  either  know  the  whole  field-  or  become  closely 
acquainted  even  with  the  details  we  study.  It  is  rather 
by  comprehending  the  origin,  object,  and  fulfilment  in 
one  glance,  that  all  the  features  can  be  seen  in  perfect 
relationship. 

What  is  it,  then,  which  makes  the  difference  betAveen 
apiece  of  architecture  and  a building?  To  put  it  in 
few  words,  architecture  comprehends  building  as  its  in- 
strument, employs  the  structure  erected  for  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  body  to  provide  simultaneously  the  beautiful, 
which  is  the  mind’s  necessity.  Architecture  and  build- 
ing stand  towards  each  other  as  the  soul  to  the  body,  — 
united  being  life ; and  building  by  itself  is  the  body 
without  the  soul,  dead  and  earthly. 

I never  see  a flat,  vertical  Avail,  pierced  through  with 
rectangular  slits  for  doors  and  windows,  Avithout  think- 
ing it  the  soulless  carcass  of  architectural  life ; repre- 
senting the  merely  animal  part  of  our  being,  and  ignor- 
ing all  its  mental  and  spiritual  faculties. 

On  the  other  hand,  when,  in  the  effort  to  meet  the  liv- 
ing appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  necessities  are  ignored, 
and  the  artistic  is  presented  as  the  be-all  and  end-all  of 
a building,  it  becomes  equally  objectionable,  as  carrying 
too  much  soul  for  its  miserable  body. 

The  useful  and  the  beautiful  may  be  combined  by  a 
due  consideration  of  requirements  in  most  objects ; but 


268 


ART  EDUCATION. 


there  are  many  in  which  no  effort  whatever  should  be 
attempted  to  make  them  other  than  simply  useful 
things ; for  in  them  art  is  an  impertinence  or  criminal 
waste.  Humble  obscurity  is  an  element  of  great  value 
in  art ; and  we  sometimes  want  mere  nothingness  as  a 
background  for  some  principal  figure,  — just  as  silence 
is  necessary  for  the  appreciation  of  sound. 

I have  met  with  no  better  illustration  of  the  marring 
of  two  purposes  by  their  union  in  one  object  than  the 
crucifix  candlestick,  — a green  glass  candlestick  made 
by  a socket  placed  on  the  top  of  a veritable  figure  of 
Christ  on  the  cross  ; for  there  a beautiful  incident  was 
degraded  by  its  application  to  an  ignoble  use,  and  an 
otherwise  useful  object  was  made  inconvenient  by 
the  bad  adaptation  of  the  design  to  the  purpose  the 
object  had  to  fulfil.  It  was  at  once  shocking  and  incon- 
venient. 

Architecture  gives  us  the  opportunity  of  uniting  these 
two  elements  of  use  and  beautjg  and  in  a maimer  pecu- 
liarly attractive  to  us  all. 

It  is  also  a case  in  which  we  are  put  into  the  witness- 
box,  and  must  testify  in  the  open  light  of  day ; for, 
though  a man  may  hide  his  face  and  conceal  his  thoughts, 
he  cannot  put  his  house  under  a bushel,  nor  explain 
away  its  meaning  by  a garbled  statement. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  function  of  architecture  is 
to  blend  the  useful  and  the  beautiful  into  an  expression 
of  perfect  human  requirements,  let  us  look  at  how  this 
has  been  and  may  be  attained. 

First  of  all,  the  circumstances  of  the  climate,  and 
habits  of  the  people,  ought  to  decide  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  building.  The  office  to  which  the  structure  is 
to  be  applied  will  also  cohtrol  its  main  feature,  and  set- 
tle the  amount  of  enrichment  it  is  right  to  adopt  in  the 
design.  And  then  comes  the  golden  rule  in  art,  — that 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


269 


no  second  means  of  enrichment  should  he  resorted  to 
until  the  first  is  exhausted ; no  third  to  take  precedence 
of  the  second. 

If  there  he  no  means  of  obtaining  the  higher  resources 
of  ornamentation,  we  should  be  the  more  economical 
with  the  lower.  If  sculpture  and  color  are  beyond  our 
reach,  let  us  see  that  the  proportion  of  masses  be  well 
arranged,  the  light  and  shade  effective,  and  the  lines  of 
construction  cunning  and  harmonious.  When  a man 
can  only  afford  to  pile  up  a heap  of  stones  or  brick  for 
his  house,  he  ought  to  employ  the  very  best  architect  of 
the  day  to  do  it  for  him  ; for  to  do  that  well  requires  the 
ripest  skill  in  art.  And  the  skill  of  the  best  architec- 
tural designer  the  country  or  the  world  affords  is  to  be 
obtained  at  a cost  of  five  per  cent  on  the  outlay,  which 
makes  the  whole  account  stand  at  ninety-five  per  cent 
for  bricks,  and  five  per  cent  for  brains ; not  an  extrava- 
gant proportion  for  brains. 

Heaps  of  bricks  and  stones,  without  any  ornamen- 
tation or  enrichment,  may  be  piled  up  in  a very  effec- 
tive manner,  delightful  to  even  the  most  refined  and 
cultivated  taste,  only  it  takes  consummate  power  to  do 
it ; and  the  less  a building  is  to  cost,  the  greater  ought 
to  be  the  architect  employed.  That  is  a rule  which 
does  not  prove  true  in  the  converse  : I should  not  like 
it  to  be  understood,  that,  the  more  a building  costs,  the 
smaller  the  architect  to  be  intrusted  with  its  design. 
Great  buildings  will  generally  be  intrusted  to  the  right 
people  ; but  lesser  ones  are  usually  in  the  hands  of  the 
wrong. 

And  then,  above  all  things,  let  not  the  simple  neces- 
sity which  confines  us  to  mere  construction  be  garbled 
and  confused  by  sham  enrichments.  If  the  material  be 
good,  and  the  lines  and  masses  of  composition  show 
skilful  design,  the  first  condition  of  good  art  has  been 


270 


ART  EDUCATION. 


complied  with : it  will  be  consistent  and  pleasing  left  in 
that  state,  but  destroyed  at  once  if  shams  be  intro- 
duced to  relieve  its  plainness. 

Indeed,  the  consideration  of  cost  does,  as  it  should, 
affect  not  only  the  accommodation  to  be  given  in  a 
building,  but  every  line  of  the  designer’s  pencil,  from 
the  first  to  the  last  touch.  I know  of  two  instances 
where  an  alteration  of  the  sum  to  be  appropriated  in 
the  erection  of  a structure  entirely  destroyed  its  charac- 
ter ; and,  curiously,  they  are  in  opposite  directions,  — the 
first  instance  decreasing  the  cost,  and  the  second  in- 
creasing it.  The  first  was  an  illustration  of  those  who 
begin  to  build,  and  do  not  count  the  cost  until  reminded 
of  it  in  the  progress  of  construction.  It  was  an  edifice 
in  the  design  for  which  appeared  a handsome  tower  and 
lofty’'  spire.  The  spire  was  half-way  up  when  the  funds 
gave  out,  and  there  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  curtail. 
So  the  committee  took  the  matter  out  of  the  architect’s 
hands ; and,  instead  of  completing  the  spire  by  the  con- 
tinuation of  its  first  lines,  they  cut  off  twenty  feet  from 
its  height,  and  finished  it  by  a sort  of  conical  stone 
nightcap,  giving  the  effect  of  an  humiliated  aspiration,  — 
a spire  which  didn’t  know  its  own  mind,  or  exactly 
where  it  was  going  to,  or  when  it  intended  to  arrive  at 
that  doubtful  point. 

The  second  case  was  where  the  founder  of  an  edifice 
commissioned  an  architect  to  design  a building  to  cost 
fifty  thousand  dollars.  When  it  was  six  feet  out  of  the 
ground,  he  altered  his  mind,  and  determined  to  spend 
five  hundred  thousand  dollars  upon  it.  The  plan  would 
not  carry  the  increase  of  expenditure  ; and  it  hardly 
requires  an  educated  eye  to  detect  an  overloading  of 
enrichment  and  disproportion  of  ornamentation  to  the 
general  conception  in  the  design. 

But,  to  explain  what  I have  referred  to  as  gradation 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


271 


iu  the  means  of  enrichment,  I must  take  a case  where 
a sufficient  amount-  of  funds  is  available  to  command 
the  best  skill  in  design,  and  all  necessary  degrees  of 
ornamentation  suitable  to  the  size  and  character  of  the 
fabric  contemplated  and  required. 

With  regard  to  material,  there  seems  good  ground  for 
supposing  that  the  natural  products  of  a locality  are 
best  suited  to  it;  and  it  certainly  comes  within  the  range 
of  art  to  use  native  materials  to  the  best  advantage : 
where  these  are  manifold,  the  scope  given  by  using 
several  kinds  in  one  building  is  valuable  to  the  skilled 
eye,  and  the  result  is  pleasing  contrast  of  color.  This 
association  of  color  in  material  is  not  the  first  step  in 
ornamentation,  but  the  second.  The  first  is  the  for- 
mation of  lines  in  the  construction,  either  in  the  shape 
of  mouldings  or  masses  of  material.  That  is  the  pri- 
mary resource  in  design,  — a sort  of  architectural  study 
in  monochrome,  or  one  color  ; the  color  being  shadow,  a 
darker  tint  of  the  material  used  in  construction.  In 
stone  of  a dark  color,  such  as  the  beautiful  reddish- 
brown  sandstone  used  in  America,  very  handsome 
effects  may  be  thus  obtained,  and,  I am  glad  to  say, 
have  been  obtained  already,  though  there  is  a want  of 
well-pronouncecl  horizontal  lines  in  most  of  the  designs  ; 
and  the  mouldings,  which  might  be  made  more  strictly 
ornamental  by  depth  and  greater  contrast  of  light  and 
shade,  are,  as  a rule,  too  weak  and  thin  in  section. 

Then,  secondly,  comes  the  use  of  various  material,  as 
stone  and  marble,  or  stone,  brick,  and  marble,  without 
carving.  Some  of  the  most  pleasing  and  attractive 
architectural  effects  are  arrived  at  by  employing  strong 
materials,  like  granite,  for  shafts  and  columns,  a differ- 
ent stone  to  make  string-courses  or  bands  of  horiz-  ntal 
lines,  and  a third  to  form  the  plain  wall  and  mass  of 
coloring.  This,  however,  requires  very  great  skill  in 


ART  EDUCATION. 


272 


design  : for  it  is  as  eas)7,  to  place  light  and  dark  color  in 
the  wrong  places  in  a building  as  it  is  in  a picture ; and, 
as  a rule,  it  has  always  appeared  the  most  pleasing  in 
effect  when  the  lightest  material  forms  the  main  part 
of  the  fabric,  and  the  darker  is  used  for  variety  and 
constructional  ornamentation.  There  is  considerable 
danger  in  overdoing  this  nse  of  colored  materials,  or 
of  letting  each  be  equally  important.  A building  at 
Oxford,  built  of  alternate  courses  of  red  sandstone  and 
white  Caen  stone,  is  always  referred  to  by  the  under- 
graduates as  the  streaky  bacon.”  And  where,'  in 
another  instance,  many  different  materials  of  bright 
color  have  been  employed,  they  describe  it  as  “ the 
frisky  harlequin.”  There  is  sound  criticism  at  the  bot- 
tom of  those  names;  for  these  terrible  children  of  nine- 
teen and  twenty  generally  get  uncomfortably  near  the 
truth  when  they  take  to  calling  names. 

As  a phase  in  this  use  of  several  colors,  is  the  con- 
trast obtained  by  polished  and  dead  surfaces  in  the 
nobler  materials,  — marble  and  granite,  — or  of  glazed 
brick  and  tiles  in  brickwork.  I know  that  many  of 
the  very  best  authorities  are  averse  to  the  employment 
of  any  material  which  shines,  or  of  polishing  any  dead 
surface.  That,  however,  can  only  apply  to  sculptured 
work,  or  work  in  which  direct  reflection  of  rays  of  light 
hides  the  ornament,  or  destroys  the  effect  of  masses  of 
light  and  shade.  In  a cylindrical  column,  the  polishing 
of  the  surface  is  an  actual  advantage  ; for  it  increases 
the  sense  of  strength  by  expressing  the  ronndness  and 
size  of  the  shaft : the  light  is  reflected  in  the  right 
place,  and  suggests  the  shadow. 

Next  to  these  resources  comes  the  use  of  carving, 
though  I am  aware  how,  in  some  of  the  best  periods 
of  art,  architectural  sculpture  has  preceded  the  use  of 
color  in  materials.  Thus  in  the  cathedrals  of  the  Mid- 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


273 


die  Ages  the  most  elaborate  carving  of  every  phase  of 
subject  was  resorted  to,  whether  in  enriched  mouldings, 
foliage,  or  the  human  and  animal  figures  ; so  that  the 
exteriors  were  magnificent  studies  in  one  color,  or  mono- 
chrome, displaying  all  the  resources  of  sculptural  art, 
from  the  simple  symmetrical  moulding  to  the  figures  of 
saints  and  kings  in  their  canopied  niches. 

Yet  it  must  be  admitted  that  these  sculptured  enrich- 
ments are  far  in  advance  of  simple  contrast  of  color  in 
mechanically-formed  blocks  of  stone,  and  in  any  system 
of  gradation  ought  to  be  ranged  in  comparison  far 
higher  than  granite-polished  shafts  or  sandstone  string- 
courses. When  we  consider,  also,  that  the  aesthetic 
Greek  and  symbolic  Gothic  styles  are  the  only  great 
successful  instances  of  sculptured  ornament  in  archi- 
tecture, it  will  be  seen  that  the  use  of  color  should  pre- 
cede the  higher  developments  of  form. 

The  gradation  in  sculptured  ornament  suitable  to 
enrichment  of  effect,  after  the  employment  of  mould- 
ings and  colored  materials,  is  in  the  order  of  vegetable 
forms,  as  foliage  and  flowers  being  first ; secondly,  ani- 
mal forms  ; and  thirdly,  if  at  all,  the  human  figure. 
The  carving  of  human  heads  on  keystones  of  arches, 
over  doors  and  windows,  often  of  enormous  size,  is 
simply  an  atrocious  barbarism.  The  human  figure 
ought  to  be  considered  too  important  a subject  to  be 
used  for  ornament  until  all  other  resources  have  been 
exhausted ; but  to  cut  it  up  into  fragments,  and  use  the 
head  alone,  like  John  the  Baptist’s  head  on  a charger, 
with  no  regard  for  proportion  to  other  parts  of  the 
building,  and  often  as  a substitute  for  all  other  orna- 
ment, is  a sign  of  nothing  but  savage  ignorance.  It  is 
of  a piece  with  that  miserable  subterfuge  of  caryatides 
— human  figures  bowed  down  by  bearing  enormous 
weights  on  their  heads  — in  place  of  columns  for  the 


274 


ART  ED UCATIO N. 


support  of  pediments,  crushed  as  it  were  by  loaded 
masses  of  stone  above  them.  The  Gothic  artists  never 
fell  into  that  monstrosity.  They  put  a shaft  or  column 
to  bear  the  weight ; and,  if  the}7'  wanted  a human  figure 
there,  put  it  on  a pedestal  in  front,  and  protected  it  by 
a canopy  above.  Where  they  did  use  a figure  to  bear 
weight,  it  was  an  evil  spirit  or  grotesque  creature 
caught  and  bound,  and  pressed  into  the  service  of  the 
Church,  and  showing  unmistakable  evidence  of  pain  in 
his  enforced  employment ; one  of  the  fallen  angels, 
who,  getting  the  worst  of  it  in  that  primeval  war,  was 
seized  by  the  monkish  artists,  and  applied  to  a more 
useful  purpose  in  stone  than  he  ever  fulfilled  in  the 
spirit.  Such  also  are  the  gurgoyles  and  monsters  who 
are  carved  as  waterspouts  to  carry  off  the  rain  from  the 
roofs  of  churches,  and  supplying,  by  their  grotesqueness, 
the  only  element  of  the  terrible  to  be  found  in  Gothic 
art. 

There  are  resources  enough  in  foliage  to  satisfy  a 
considerable  love  of  sculpture  and  carving  architec- 
turally, and  greater  developments  may  employ  the  com- 
bination with  it  of  animal  forms.  Last  of  all  should 
come  the  human  figure,  only  when  all  other  expression 
fails,  and  for  the  highest  purposes  of  art.  To  conven- 
tionalize the  image  of  God,  or  to  put  it  to  ignoble 
purposes,  is  sacrilege.  All  art  processes  are  feeble  con- 
ventionalities compared  with  nature,  and  all  the  lower 
types  are  more  capable  of  generalization  in  art  than  is 
the  human  figure.  The  Greeks  understood  this,  and 
barbarous  races  have  always  misunderstood  it ; and  I 
take  it  to  be  an  evidence  of  good  art  where  the  human 
figure  is  used  sparingly  or  with  reverence,  and  of  savage 
art  where  it  is  employed  indiscriminately  for  many  pur- 
poses, or  repeated  as  an  ornament. 

Recurring  to  the  use  of  polished  and  dead  surfaces,  it 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


275 


may  not  be  without  interest  to  remember,  that  Edmund 
Burke,  in  his  essays  on  the  sublime  and  beautiful,  laid 
it  down  as  a general  proposition,  that  in  nature  smooth 
things  are  beautiful,  and  rough  things  are  ugly.  He 
says,  — 

“ Smoothness  is  a quality  so  essential  to  beauty,  that 
I do  not  now  recollect  any  thing  beautiful  that  is  no: 
smooth.  In  trees  and  flowers,  smooth  leaves  are  beau- 
tiful ; smooth  slopes  of  earth  in  gardens  ; smooth  streams 
in  the  landscape ; smooth  coats  of  birds  or  beasts  in 
animal  beauties ; in  fine  women,  smooth  skins ; and 
in  several  sorts  of  ornamental  furniture,  smooth  and 
polished  surfaces.  A very  considerable  part  of  the 
effect  of  beauty  is  owing  to  this  quality ; indeed,  the 
most  considerable : for  take  any  beautiful  object,  and 
give  it  a broken  or  rugged  surface,  and,  however  well 
formed  it  may  be  in  other  respects,  it  pleases  no  longer. 
Whereas,  let  it  want  ever  so  much  of  the  other  consti- 
tuents, if  it  wants  not  this,  it  becomes  more  pleasing 
than  almost  all  the  others  without  it.  This  seems  to 
me  so  evident,  that  I am  a good  deal  surprised  that 
none  who  have  handled  this  subject  have  made  any 
mention  of  the  quality  of  smoothness  in  the  enumera- 
tion of  those  that  go  to  the  forming  of  beauty ; for, 
indeed,  any  rugged,  any  sudden  projection,  any  sharp 
angle,  is  in  the  highest  degree  contrary  to  the  idea.” 

And  in  his  recapitulation  he  says,  — 

“ On  the  whole,  the  qualities  of  beauty,  as  they  are 
merely  sensible  qualities,  are  the  following : — 

“ First , To  be  comparatively  small. 

“ Secondly , To  be  smooth. 

“ Thirdly , To  have  a variety  in  the  direction  of  the 
parts. 

“ Fourthly,  To  have  those  parts  not  angular,  but 
melted  as  it  were  into  each  other. 


276 


ART  EDUCATION. 


“ Fifthly,  To  be  of  a delicate  frame,  without  any  re- 
markable appearance  of  strength. 

“ Sixthly,  To  have  its  colors  clear  and  bright,  but  not 
very  strong  and  glaring. 

“ Seventhly , If  it  should  have  any  glaring  color,  to 
have  it  diversified  with  others. 

“ These  are,  I believe,  the  properties  on  which  beauty 
depends,  — properties  that  operate  by  nature,  and  are 
less  liable  to  be  altered  by  caprice,  or  confounded  by  a 
diversity  of  tastes,  than  any  other.” 

Now,  that  testimony  is  plain  enough,  and  is  evidence 
from  one  who  by  his  study  of  the  cause  of  beauty  had 
a right  to  form  and  express  an  opinion. 

But,  iu  applying  this  to  art  instead  of  nature,  it  seems 
to  me  not  to  be  wholly  true ; for  smooth  surfaces’ are 
sometimes,  by  art  processes,  roughened  to  increase  their 
beauty.  In  nature  it  may  be,  and  I think  is  true,  that 
smoothness  is  a considerable  element  in  beauty ; but  in 
art  it  would  have  been  truer  to  have  said  that  flat,  rough 
tilings  were  ugly,  and  smooth,  round  tilings  were  beau- 
tiful,— flatness  being  almost  incompatible  with  beauty 
of  the  highest  order,  just  as  it  is  a necessity  of  subordi- 
nation. And  in  this  our  ideas  are  very  much  based  on 
the  natural  forms  displayed  in  the  development  of  the 
human  body.  The  straight  line  is  less  beautiful  than 
the  circle,  the  circle  less  beautiful  than  the  ellipse,  or 
oval.  How  the  forms  of  children  tend  to  the  round 
or  circular,  and  suggest  health ! Whether  it  be  the 
rounded  cheek  or  the  concave  dimple,  the  prevailing 
shape  is  spherical.  In  the  most  perfectly-developed 
beauty,  as  seen  in  the  faces  and  forms  of  women,  the 
elliptical  form  prevails,  the  face  being  oval ; and  the  high- 
est types  of  natural  beauty  are  to  be  found  in  the  faces 
and  other  forms  of  well-developed  women.  Decay  and 
old  age  reduce  the  elliptical  curve  to  the  straight  line, 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS , 


277 


or  something  like  it : the  roundness  of  the  child  has 
merged  into  the  ovoid  face  of  the  woman  ; and  then 
decay  takes  the  beautiful  curves  away,  and  flattens  the 
check  and  straightens  the  jaw,  and,  in  fact,  destroys  the 
beauty.  In  this  case  it  is  not  smoothness  only  which 
causes  beauty,  but  roundness. 

That  same  element  is  to  be  noted  in  Egyptian,  Greek, 
and  Roman  mouldings,  progressing  on  exactly  the 
reverse  plan.  In  Egyptian  mouldings,  the  prevailing 
line  is  straight,  — chastity  ; in  Greek,  the  ellipse,  — 
subtlety;  in  Roman,  the  circle,  — boldness;  and  here, 
as  in  the  human  form,  the  subtlest  beauty  is  seen  in  the 
Greek  or  ovoid  forms. 

There  are  three  elements  of  enrichment  I hope  to 
see  extensively  used  in  American  architecture,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  I have  already  referred  to  ; namely,  encaus- 
tic tiles,  having  a dead  surface,  and  bas-reliefs,  terracotta 
mouldings,  moulded  brick,  wrought  iron,  and  lead  work. 

I have  already  stated  that  one  necessary  characteristic 
of  all  true,  intelligent,  and  noble  art  is  permanence  ; and 
this  should  control  even  the  material  in  which  a struc- 
ture is  erected.  Where  peculiar  natural  or  artificial  con- 
ditions of  the  atmosphere  destroy  the  softer  stones,  it 
is  folly  to  employ  them.  The  British  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, perhaps  the  most  costly  building  erected  in  this 
century,  is  crumbling  away ; and  you  may  cut  the  stone 
externally  with  a knife,  as  you  would  an  apple.  On 
the  east  coast  of  Yorkshire  there  is  a building  not 
twenty  years  old,  which  externally  is  more  ruinous  than 
an  old  abbey  near  it,  which  is  centuries  old.  That  has 
been  caused  by  the  action  of  the  sea-air,  charged  with 
salt,  on  a soft  stone  ; and  the  old  monks  who  built  the 
abbey  either  knew  of  this  scientific  truth,  or  they 
blundered  on  a stone  with  which  to  build  their  abbey 
that  was  proof  against  all  climatic  influences. 


278 


ART  EDUCATION. 


AVhat  is  true  of  the  fabric  is  true  of  details.  To 
invest  labor  and  skill  in  art  upon  delicate,  sculptured 
ornament,  which  will  either  he  destroyed  by  decay,  or 
its  effect  be  nullified  by  discoloration,  is  not  wise.  For 
this  reason,  terracotta  is  preferable ; and  it  introduces, 
also,  the  element  of  color.  If  sculpture  be  applied  to 
very  hard  stone,  the  work  must  necessarily  be  rough ; 
and,  when  the  grain  of  the  stone  is  coarse,  the  work 
will  be  heavy  and  ponderous. 

If  a building  were  erected  here  in  America  contain- 
ing brick  as  a basis,  moulded  brick  for  mouldings,  terra- 
cotta for  its  sculptured  enrichments,  and  encaustic  tiles 
to  give  bands  of  color,  we  should  see  a structure  entirely 
composed  externally  of  burnt  earth,  indestructible  and 
unchangeable  either  by  climate  or  other  influences, 
except  fire,  which  would  pulverize  the  mortar  in  which 
the  burnt  earth  was  set.  I hope  the  time  is  not  far 
distant  when  an  enlightened  public  sentiment  will  cre- 
ate a desire  for  pictures  in  public  buildings ; for  until 
that  is  the  case  we  shall  have  no  very  great  artists. 

The  Puritan  feeling  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  wher- 
ever  found,  has  been  averse  to  associating  the  highest 
forms  of  art  with  religion,  as  a thing  savoring  of  popery 
and  the  Scarlet  Lady.  But  that  is  rapidly  becoming 
a thing  of  the  past ; and,  if  I mistake  not,  I have  seen 
beautiful  pictures  in  the  windows  of  a Unitarian 
church  in  this  city  of  Boston,  which,  had  our  great- 
grandfathers beheld,  they  would  have  exclaimed  with 
the  Jews  of  old,  “ If  we  permit  this  thing,  the  Romans 
will  come  and  take  away  our  place  and  nation.” 

The  revival  of  Gothic  art,  which  has  occurred  during 
the  last  fifty  years,  has  let  considerable  daylight  into 
our  notions  concerning  these  things.  It  has  been  found 
possible  to  employ  beautiful  art  to  hallow  the  sanc- 
tuary, without  reviving  dead-and-gone  superstitions. 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


279 


We  find  that  nature,  as  a rule,  is  very  artistic  without 
being  at  all  sectarian,  and  true  art  is  a reflex  of  nature. 
There  will  come  a time  when  the  Protestantism  which 
has  survived  the  introduction  of  pictures  in  windows 
will  not  be  shocked  or  destroyed  by  a fresco  or  mosaic 
on  the  walls  of  our  churches ; and  then  may  come  again 
to  us  the  light  which  shone  upon  Italy  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  more  brilliant  in  our  day,  in  that  it  has  been 
purified  from  the  mists  of  superstition. 

I was  once  travelling  in  a stage-coach  with  an  anciert 
dame,  who  had  not  been  out  of  her  native  village,  away 
up  among  the  Yorkshire  hills,  for  forty  years,  as  she 
told  me.  She  was  a devout  Wesleyan,  belonging  to 
what  she  described  as  “ t’owd  body’" — the  first  origi- 
nal Wesleyan  Methodists,  founded  by  Wesley  himself. 

As  we  approached  a town,  the  first  she  had  seen  for 
forty  years,  we  passed  by  a very  elaborate  religious 
edifice  in  the  highest  development  of  Gothic,  its  win- 
dows dull  with  stained  glass  leading,  and  its  gable-ends 
bristling  with  elaborate  crosses.  Asking  what  building 
that  might  be,  I informed  her  that  it  was  a Methodist 
chapel.  “ Some  of  them  new-fangled  bodies,”  she 
remarked,  “that  stick  to  the  old  name,  whilst  they  have 
lost  the  old  spirit.”  — “ On  the  contrary,”  I replied, 
“ that  is  the  new  chapel  of  the  old  body.”  — “ What ! ” 
she  roared  out,  “ with  all  them  popish  symbols  on  the 
roof,  — their  crosses  and  jinglings  and  priestcraft!” 
Wringing  her  hands,  she  muttered,  “ That  ever  I should 
have  lived  to  see  this  day,  I rue  it,  I rue  it ! ” and  the 
old  lady  wept  .tears  of  real  Protestant  sorrow  at  the 
sight  of  the  cross,  the  symbol  of  her  redemption ! 

I might  have  been  disposed  to  commiserate  these 
wasted  tears,  and  attribute  them  to  the  forty  years  spent 
on  that  hillside  upon  the  wolds,  only  that  another  indi- 
vidual, who  could  not  give  that  excuse,  a very  reve- 


280 


ART  EDUCATION. 


rend  dean  of  the  principal  church  in  London,  had  just 
been  wringing  his  hands  from  a similar  cause,  and, 
in  reply  to  the  proposition  that  St.  Paul’s  should  he 
decorated  with  frescos,  had  declared,  that,  so  long  as  he 
lived,  popery  should  not  creep  into  the  cathedral,  in 
whatever  guise  it  came.  Alas  ! for- this  reverend  Mrs. 
Partington,  trying,  as  Sydney  Smith  said,  to  mop  up  the 
Atlantic : the  good  dean  has  gone  to  his  Protestant 
bourn,  the  pictures  are  to  be  placed  in  St.  Paul’s,  and 
popery  is  nowhere. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  form  of  picture  for  either 
external  or  internal  decoration  is  the  mosaic,  such  as 
the  Roman  or  Venetian  mosaic,  composed  of  minute 
squares  of  colored  glass  or  earth  : it  is  also  the  only  form 
of  picture  which  will  stand  our  northern  climate  exter- 
nally. There  is  a great  revival  of  the  practice  of 
working  in  mosaic  going  on  now  in  London  ; and  all  the 
portraits  of  distinguished  artists  and  men  of  science 
which  decorate  the  panels,  and  fill  the  sunken  niches, 
of  the  South-Kensington  Museum  are  worked  in  mosaic. 
The  building  in  which  they  are  is  absolutely  fire-proof ; 
so  that  the  objection  sometimes  urged  against  frescos 
and  mosaics  — their  liability  to  be  destroyed  by  fire  — 
does  not  apply  to  them. 

The  existence  of  symbolism  in  architectural  enrich- 
ments is  an  element  of  interest  always,  whether  the 
building  be  religious  or  secular,  though  it  is  not  so  fre- 
quent in  the  latter  as  in  the  former : yet  in  the  coats- 
of-arms,  in  the  mottoes,  or  seals,  on  civil  buildings,  it 
still  lingers  amongst  us ; and  latterly  it  has  taken  a 
new  form  in  ornamental  carving.  Thus  in  an  English 
northern  hospital,  a modem  Gothic  building,  the  capi- 
tals of  the  columns  are  carved  into  the  likenesses  of  all 
the  plants  and  herbs  used  in  medicine ; and,  as  these 
capitals  are  somewhat  numerous,  it  points  out  to  the 


ARCHITECTURAL  ENRICHMENTS. 


281 


patients  tlie  unlimited  field  the  doctors  have  for  killing 
or  curing  them. 

The  advantage  of  the  symbol  is  in  its  conciseness , 
and  where,  as  in  religious  art,  it  conveys  at  a glance 
some  principle  or  dogma  of  creed,  or  cherished  incident 
in  the  lives  of  revered  persons,  there  is  consistency  and 
beauty  in  the  use  of  symbolic  emblems. 

Yet  as  this  is  scarcely  to  be  called  an  age  of  faith,  the 
value  of  the  symbol  is  decreasing ; and  both  people  and 
artists  seek  in  the  enjoyment  of  physical  beauty  what 
they  have  lost  in  faith.  That  has  led  us  into  aestheti- 
cism, — the  choice  of  forms  and  their  expression  on 
account  of  their  attractiveness  to  us  only. 

But  I do  not  regard  this  as  a permanent  feature  of 
the  art  of  this  country.  In  our  veins  here  to-day  runs 
the  same  blood  as  once  gave  life  to  the  men  who  built  the 
cathedrals ; and  that  history  repeats  itself,  is  true  now 
as  heretofore-  The  Anglo-Saxon  race  is  pre-eminently 
a believing  race,  and  a Gothic  race  too ; and  it  has  only 
been  at  the  most  barren  and  miserable  portions  of  its 
history  that  it  has  relapsed  into  classicalism  in  art,  and 
rationalism  in  religion.  The  French  Renaissance  taste, 
which  is  so  popular  in  America  to-day,  will  not  last.  It 
has  not  a thought  or  form  in  harmony  with  the  blood 
of  the  people,  but  is  really  a passing  sentiment ; and, 
with  increasing  art  education,  it  will  cease  to  express 
their  feeling.  The  architects  who  go  from  America  to 
Europe,  and  study  there  as  part  of  their  training,  come 
back  and  build  Gothic  buildings,  which  means  something 
for  those  who  have  eyes  to  see.  The  repetition  of  his- 
tory, which  gave  impulse  to  Pre-Raphaelism,  and  infused 
most  of  what  is  vital  in  English  art ; the  Gothic  revival, 
which  has  made  every  branch  of  art  it  has  embraced 
honest  and  living  again  as  it  did  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  — that  art  revivalism  is  already  here 


282 


ART  EDUCATION. 


amongst  us  to-day,  in  the  persons  of  the  most  intelli- 
gent American  artists,  and  the  most  educated  of  Ameri- 
can architects.  Climate,  a new  form  of  government,  and 
two  hundred  years  of  independent  education,  have  not 
bred  out  of  us  what  it  took  six  centuries  to  breed  into 
us  ; and,  when  the  breath  of  art  life  shall  call  into  exist- 
ence a national  school  of  American  art,  it  will  not  be 
rationalistic  nor  classical : the  instincts  of  our  old  Gothic 
forefathers  will  be  revived  here  as  elsewhere  ; and  the 
art  which  has  to  express  our  whole  sentiment  will  not  be 
found  to  ignore  our  Christian  faith,  nor  the  art  language 
of  our  ancestors. 

Those  miserable  nightmare  reigns  of  the  four 
Georges,  of  which  every  Englishman  is  now  justly 
ashamed,  may  have  made  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  into  two 
nations  ; but  they  could  not,  even  by  crime  and  blunder- 
ing, transform  them  into  more  than  one  people.  And 
though  the  waters  of  the  broad  Atlantic  flow  between 
these  two  nations,  and  separate  them  geographically,  the 
common  blood  in  their  veins  — blood  which  is  thicker 
than  water  — will,  let  us  fervently  hope,  keep  them 
forever  an  undivided  people. 

Their  agreement  means  “ peace,  and  good-will  toward 
men,’’  — the  message  of  heaven  to  earth  : their  division 
and  dissension  mean  fratricide  and  wickedness.  Let  us 
each  and  all  strive  to  unite  this  race  by  mutual  char- 
ity and  forbearance,  in  which  the  3-ounger  and  stronger 
nation  can  afford  to  be  generous  and  just.  We  ought 
to  honor  our  national  as  well  as  our  physical  parents ; 
and  the  reward  is,  “ that  our  days  shall  be  long  in  the 
land  which  the  Lord  our  God  giveth  us.” 


CHAPTER  XI. 

SYMBOLISM  IN  ART  AND  ARCHITECTURE. 

THE  aesthetic  and  symbolic  are  not  inaptly  illustrated 
by  the  legend  of  that  beautiful  little  blue  flower  with 
its  golden  eye,  which  grows  on  the  banks  of  every  purl- 
ing stream  or  flowing  river  that  meanders  through  the 
meadow-lands  of  old  England,  — the  “forget-me-not.” 
The  ancient  story,  handed  down  traditionally  from  gene- 
ration to  generation  of  young  men  and  maidens,  old  men 
and  children,  is,  that  a young  knight  and  his  true-love 
were  wandering  on  the  margin  of  a rivulet,  talking,  no 
doubt,  on  the  subject  which  was  invented  by  Adam  and 
Eve  in  paradise,  and  maintains  its  interest  to  this  day, 
though  none  has  ever  been  so  generally  discussed,  or 
resulted  so  universally  in  such  unanimity  of  opinion,  — a 
subject  called  now,  from  its  great  antiquity,  the  “ old, 
old  story,”  ever  new  and  fresh  and  delightful  to  those 
who  tell  it,  as  to  those  who  hear  it ; for  “ time  cannot 
stale  nor  custom  wither  its  infinite  variety.”  In  an 
interval  of  the  wooing,  the  “ fayre  ladaye  ” caught  sight 
of  a cluster  of  blue  coronets  — rivalling  the  beauty  of  her 
own  eves  or  the  tint  of  the  heaven  above  — growing  in 
rich  wantonness  on  the  shady  bank  opposite  to  the 
lovers.  An  expression  of  admiration,  and  of  a wish  to 
possess  them,  on  the  lady’s  part,  sent  the  knight  of  that 
chivalrous  age  plunging  into  the  stream ; and,  battling 

283 


284 


ART  EDUCATION. 


against  its  turbulent  motion,  he  grasped  the  longed-for 
treasure.  Recrossing  the  rivulet,  whilst  preserving  his 
chaplet  of  flowers  uninjured,  his  powers  were  ill-matched 
against  the  violence  of  the  water,  but  enabled  him  to 
approach  his  lady-love  sufficiently  near  to  be  able  to 
throw  the  bouquet  at  her  feet,  and  exclaim,  as  he  was 
swept  away,  “ Forget  me  not.”  Since  which  time  the 
flower  has  been  consecrated  to  lovers  as  an  emblem  and 
symbol  of  faithfulness  and  true  love. 

Before,  it  was  only  an  aesthetic  love  of  the  beautiful 
which  made  that  “ fayre  lad  aye  ” admire  it ; but  after- 
wards it  would  doubtless  be  a consecrated  emblem,  whose 
beauty,  great  as  that  is,  was  eclipsed  by  its  symbolic 
meaning.  And  a symbol  it  has  remained  to  this  day. 

Symbolism  is  the  suggestion  through  form  and  color 
in  art,  through  words  in  language,  sound  in  music,  and 
signs  in  motion,  of  something  which  is  beyond  and  in 
addition  to  the  mere  outward  meaning  of  the  thing  seen, 
spoken,  heard,  or  done.  It  is  characteristic  alike  of  the 
infancy  and  the  maturity  of  the  arts  and  of  social  his- 
tory ; but  its  use  marks  the  existence  of  a distinct  type 
of  mind.  What  the  allegory  and  parable  are  in  litera- 
ture ; what  figurative  speaking  is  in  language  ; what  the 
war-cry  is  in  the  death-struggle  of  contending  armies, 
or  the  trumpet-note  in  face  of  the  foe,  — what  these 
things  were  and  are  in  their  several  ways,  the  same  is 
symbolism  in  art.  and  architecture. 

Beginning  with  architecture.  Both  the  ancient  and 
modern  styles  are  divided  easily  into  the  aesthetic  and 
the  symbolic : the  former  being  the  embodiment  of  the 
beautiful  alone  and  for  itself ; the  latter  striving,  through 
the  choice  of  beautiful  forms,  to  convey  a second  mean- 
ing, either  of  religion  or  sentiment.  The  ancient  styles 
of  architecture  are  the  Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Roman ; 
of  which  the  Egyptian  is  a symbolic  style,  whilst  the 
Greek  and  Roman  are  aesthetic  styles. 


SYMBOLISM. 


285 


Tlie  distinction  may  be  seen  by  examining  the  treat- 
ment of  a human  figure  as  displayed  by  the  two  styles. 
In  the  Greek,  or  aesthetic,  nothing  but  the  absolute 
imitation  of  the  most  perfect  forms  seems  to  have  been 
considered,  — the  V enus  displaying  only  the  choicest 
example  of  female  form,  the  Apollo  of  male  form. 

The  Gladiator  and  Discobolus  were  only  athletes  in 
perfect  human  development  of  strength  and  training, 
without  reference  to  a second  thought,  save  delight  in 
mere  excellence,  and  reproduction  of  the  beautiful  or 
the  perfect.  The  Jupiter  exhibited  the  majesty,  Juno 
the  dignity,  Hercules  the  strength,  and  Bacchus  the 
mirth,  of  the  immortal  gods,  — not  by  signs  or  symbols, 
but  by  creation  of  the  divinities  themselves.  In  the 
Egyptian  or  symbolic  style,  a figure  was  used  to  embody 
some  idea  connected  with  the  theology  or  history  of  the 
nation  ; and  the  actual  form  of  its  human  parts  was  of 
little  consequence  compared  to  the  truth  or  sentiment  it 
illustrated.  The  amount  of  imitative  power,  as  applied 
to  the  representation  of  the  human  figure,  in  Egyptian 
art  was  slight ; yet  it  conveyed  what  was  meant,  because 
what  was  meant  was  something  beyond  the  figure  of 
the  person  represented  : it  was  symbolic  of  what  the 
artist  thought  or  believed. 

In  the  modern  styles  of  architecture,  Gothic  is  a sym- 
bolic, and  Renaissance  or  Italian  or  classic  is  an  aesthetic 
style.  I think,  from  the  analogy,  symbolism  in  art  is 
an  indication  of  the  association  of  religious  views  with 
the  daily  life  of  the  people ; or  that  art,  being  in  the 
hands  of  the  priests,  has  been  used  as  an  exponent  of 
the  national  creed.  We  find,  for  instance,  that,  where 
the  religious  element  is  the  most  powerful,  there  art 
became  the  most  generally  symbolic,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Egyptians,  and  the  people  living  in  the  Middle  Ages 
who  built  our  cathedrals. 


286 


ART  EDUCATION. 


In  architecture  we  see  the  most  permanently  pre- 
served forms  of  symbolism  : and  I purpose  pointing  these 
out  to  you ; because,  when  the  idea  of  incorporating 
ideas  or  creeds  with  imitative  art  becomes  the  leading 
principle,  then  we  shall  see  every  form  as  an  article  of 
faith,  and  nothing  left  out  from  being  affected  by  the 
prevailing  influence.  The  same  principle  which  settled 
that  Christian  churches  should  be  built  'east  and  west, 
and  decreed  that  Christian  men  and  women  should  be 
buried  with  their  feet  to  the  east,  — so  that,  in  the  first 
case,  the  altar  should  be  towards  the  country  whence 
came  Christianity,  and,  in  the  second,  that  the  Christian 
should  rise  at  the  last  trumpet-call,  and  face  his  Saviour, 
— guided  also,  with  a different  application,  the  laying  out 
of  Egyptian  temples,  which  all  have  their  axes  to  one 
point  of  the  compass,  and  also  permeated  every  detail 
in  the  ornamentation  of  those  temples.  Thus  the  pros- 
perity of  Egypt  was  associated  with  the  overflowing 
of  the  Nile,  which  brought  fruitfulness  to  the  soil,  and 
food  for  the  people : as  a recognition  of  this,  we  find 
the  prevailing  form  in  ornamentation  is  the  lotus,  or 
water-lily,  of  the  Nile,  — symbol  of  plenty  and  pros- 
perity. Again,  the  zigzag,  or  ornament  composed  of 
straight  lines,  signified  the  Nile  smooth  and  at  rest: 
the  wave  scroll,  a spiral-curved  form  used  in  enrich- 
ment, was  the  emblem  of  the  Nile  water  in  motion. 

The  winged  globe  was  carved  over  the  doorway  of 
every  Egyptian  temple  ; and  this  symbol  was  a kind 
of  mixture  of  the  Christian  symbol  of  the  cross  and 
national  arms,  — the  two  rolled  into  one.  This  winged 
globe  was  composed  of  a ball,  or  sphere,  which  meant 
the  earth  ; on  each  side  were  spread  the  eagle’s  wings, 
meaning  dominion  ; and  between  the  two  were  two 
serpents,  or  asps ; the  whole  signifying,  that,  with  the 
wisdom  of  the  serpent,  Egypt  had  dominion  over  the 
whole  globe,  or  earth. 


SYMBOLISM. 


287 


There  was  also  a religious  interpretation  of  this 
symbol,  which  regarded  it  as  an  agatho-demon,  or  good 
spirit,  — a species  of  trinity  composed  of  three  parts, 
the  globe  signifying  creation,  the  sun  being  the  material 
source  of  every  thing,  the  wings  providence,  and  the 
asp  order  or  wisdom.  The  crook  and  flail  joined 
together,  and  occurring  constantly  on  the  decorated 
parts  of  buildings  and  garments,  denoted  the  high 
respect  paid  to  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  life  in 
Egypt. 

The  favorite  lotus-flower,  used  as  an  emblem  of  plenty, 
was  further  symbolized  by  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
represented.  Thus,  if  the  flower  was  turned  upwards, 
it  was  a symbol  of  Upper  Egypt ; if  downward,  of 
Lower  Egypt. 

In  Chinese  art,  nature  is  imitated  by  the  designer, 
either  closely  or  conventionally,  without  any  other  idea 
than  copying  beautiful  forms.  It  is  purely  an  aesthetic 
style,  meaning  nothing  but  simple  ornament,  uncon- 
nected with  religion.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  effect  of  religious  influence  upon 
art  is  very  strongly  marked,  from  the  entire  devotion 
which  the  Christian  artists  showed  towards  their  work. 
Thus  both  art  and  religion  became  promoted,  — the  for- 
mer through  the  influence  of  the  latter,  and  religion 
through  the  expression  of  art.  The  proof  of  this  union 
is  the  constant  repetition  of  symbolic  forms  in  all  art 
work. 

This  lasted  for  a few  centuries  ; but  the  influence  of 
religious  fervor  became  less  and  less.  And  thus  we  find 
that  emblems  gradually  died  out : art  became  more 
aesthetic,  and  consequently  less  symbolic.  Much  of  this 
change  was  due  to  the  advancement  of  art  and  the  in- 
creased  power  of  artists.  The  first  Christians  were,  as  a 
body,  uncultured  and  persecuted,  meeting  in  dens  and 


288 


ART  EDUCATION. 


caves  of  the  earth.  To  them  a cross  was  sign  and  sym- 
bol of  redemption  and  faith,  — a symbol  for  which  they 
were  ready  to  suffer  death  if  need  be  ; a mark  engraved 
on  their  hearts  and  in  their  secret  places  of  worship, 
borne  aloft  in  their  processions  with  chants  of  victory  or 
litanies  of  prayer,  until*  from  the  village  of  Nazareth 
had  proceeded  the  mysterious  conquerors  of  the  Roman 
Empire  : the  Gaul  and  German,  Celt  and  Saxon,  were 
enrolled  as  soldiers  of  the  cross.  In  the  first  rude  time 
the  two  cross-lines  were  sufficient  to  symbolize  this 
suffering  and  victory  ; but  when  Christianity  became 
the  dominant  religion,  and  art  had  developed  into 
maturity,  gorgeous  pictures  of  the  crucifixion  took  the 
place  of  the  simple  cross. 

In  the  same  way  the  fish  was  an  emblem  of  baptism, 

— the  rudest  and  simplest  manner  in  which  so  important 
a part  of  the  creed  could  be  symbolized.  Three  crosses 
together  were  emblematic  of  the  crucifixion  before  art 
was  able  to  paint  the  figures  upon  them.  But  as  art  and 
architecture  progressed,  so  long  as  it  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  religion,  the  symbolic  principle  prevailed 
over  every  plan  and  every  detail. 

The  churches  and  cathedrals  were  built  in  the  form 
of  a cross  in  plan.  The  numbers  3,  5,  7,  became  sacred, 

— 3 meaning  the  Trinity,  5 tire  five  wounds,  7 the  seven 
sacraments.  The  numbers  were  to  be  seen  in  the  plan 
of  a church, — a nave  and  two  aisles;  in  the  number 
of  lights  in  the  windows,  in  the  foils  of  the  tracery,  in 
the  number  of  points  or  leaflets  in  the  sculptural  foliage  ; 
and  even  the  art  of  painting  so  far  embraced  the  princi- 
ple as  to  give  a special  color  for  the  garment  of  every 
saint,  and  a special  emblem  to  denote  the  sufferings  of 
each  martyr.  Thus  St.  Andrew,  executed  by  cruci- 
fixion upon  a cross  in  the  form  of  the  letter  X,  stands 
majestically'  behind  the  symbol  of  his  martyrdom. 


SYMBOLISM. 


289 


Another  apostle,  sawn  in  two  by  his  persecutors,  appears 
forever  in  the  glorious  canopied  sculpture  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  with  the  implement  of  his  barbarous  execution 
in  his  faithful  hand,  — a never-dying  protest  against  the 
bigotry  of  old  creeds,  and  a warning  to  all  future  peo- 
ples not  to  persecute  the  believers  in  new  doctrines. 

The  architecture  of  a people,  supposing  it  to  be  a 
native  and  not  a borrowed  style,  will  display  in  its 
details  the  governing  influence  of  the  period  in  which  it 
is  practised.  Wherever  it  expresses  an  embodiment  of 
creed,  as  in  ancient  Egyptian  or  mediaeval  Gothic,  there 
we  may  be  sure  religion  has  been  the  prime  mover  in 
the  State.  Where,  on  the  other  hand,  it  displays  kingly 
or  military  symbols,  we  may  draw  the  inference  that  the 
religious  element  was  less  powerful. 

In  Roman  art  the  chief  characteristic  was  the  predom- 
inance of  military  trophies,  such  as  triumphal  arches 
and  columns,  to  commemorate  victories.  In  Greek  as 
well  as  Roman  history,  we  are  told  it  was  customary 
to  decorate  baths,  triumphal  arches,  and  other  buildings, 
with  the  spoils  of  vanquished  enemies.  Thus  trophies 
became  a permanent  feature  of  the  styles,  and  indicated 
the  influence  of  the  military  power. 

Every  people  that  has  had  a history  will  be  found  to 
be  possessed  of  symbolism  ; for  that  is  but  the  expression 
of  history.  It  is  compressing  into  a small  compass  the 
watchwords  and  principles  which  have  been  tried  and 
not  found  wanting.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten,  that  there 
is  a secular  as  well  as  a religious  symbolism.  The  coats- 
of-arms  of  ancient  families  are  symbolic  of  either  their 
characteristics  or  achievements.  'The  Prince  Consort’s 
motto,  he  who  was  called  by  England’s  greatest  modern 
poet  Albert  the  Good,  was  “ True  and  Fast.”  An  Eng- 
lish nobleman’s  title,  arising  from  his  crest,  is  “ Say  and 
Seal.”  There  is  no  end  to  the  history  contained  in  the 


290 


ART  EDUCATION. 


crests  and  arms  of  the  principal  families  in  every  Euro- 
pean State  ; but  it  is  all  expressed  symbolically.  I once 
asked  the  meaning  of  the  words,  or  motto,  on  the  crest  of 
a family  named  Cross  : it  was  “ Crede  Cruce  ” (“  Believe 
in  the  Cross  ”).  The  answer  was  simply,  that  no  Cross 
of  that  family  was  ever  known  to  tell  a lie ! Young 
01  old,  in  joke  or  in  earnest,  a Cross  told  the  truth,  be 
the  consequence  what  it  might.  That  was  symbolism 
of  the  noblest  sort,  a whole  system  of  morality  in  itself. 
A symbol  may  be  expressed  in  a word  or  words,  such  as 
“ Dieu  et  mon  droit  ” (“  God  and  my  right  ”)  ; and  it 
is  sometimes  used  to  express  a local  characteristic. 

I said  that  symbolism  was  the  mark  of  a distinct  type 
of  mind  ; and  that  type  is  the  imaginative , with  a ten- 
dency to  the  religious.  It  is  the  discovery  of  similitudes 
between  the  seen  and  the  unseen  ; the  co-ordinating  of 
human  hearts  with  spiritual  standards ; the  linking 
together  of  the  good  deeds  of  all  past  ages  with  the 
present  by  keeping  them  forever  in  remembrance  ; the 
physical  outward  significance  of  a principle  made 
sacred  or  an  act  deemed  noble,  spoken  in  a language 
without  words,  appealing  to  the  sentiment  and  the  soul. 
It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  how  such  a characteristic  as 
symbolism  would  be  the  product  of  a religious  age,  and 
the  more  so  when  an  age  is  both  religious  and  ignorant. 
For  the  symbol  is  more  condensed  than  the  cipher,  and 
plainer  to  understand  by  the  lowest  capacity. 

Before  books  were  printed  and  pictures  were  painted, 
when  knowledge  was  in  the  hands  of  the  few,  when 
being  learned  was  to  be  called  a clerk,  and  being  called  a 
clerk  meant  being  in  holy  orders,  or,  if  not  that,  a Jesuit, 
then  the  symbol  was  books,  pictures,  knowledge,  all  in 
one,  to'  the  masses  of  the  ignorant  or  superstitious. 
Having  thus  gained  a foothold  in  the  mind,  it  retains 
its  place  from  its  own  intrinsic  beauty ; but  before  the 


SYMBOLISM. 


291 


spread  of  knowledge,  freedom  of  thought,  and  a ten- 
dency to  dissociate  the  religious  principle  from  art,  sym- 
bolism must  be  cherished  and  kept  alive  by  those  who 
love  it,  or  rationalism  and  the  aesthetic  spirit  will  destroy 
it  altogether.  The  aesthetic  styles  of  architecture  banish 
symbolism  entirely.  The  rationalistic  mind  will  never 
tolerate  a symbol  when  it  scoffs  at  the  reality.  A man 
who  laughs  at  the  sacrifice  will  not  be  found  to  swear  by 
the  altar.  And  thus  it  will  be  found  that  a perpetual 
struggle  goes  on  between  the  aesthetic  and  the  sym- 
bolic in  art  and  architecture. 

In  this  age  we  have  seen  a contest  between  symbols 
and  aesthetics  in  the  struggle  between  classic  and 
Gothic  architecture  for  predominance. 

This  contest  is  not  yet  over,  nor  will  it  ever  be ; 
though  the  balance  of  success  is  very  largely  in  favor 
of  Gothic  and  symbolism  just  at  present.  Nor  do  I 
think  the  advantage  will  be  easily  wrested  from  it ; 
because  the  basis  upon  which  its  appreciation  now  rests 
has  been  widened  and  strengthened  to  embrace  much 
of  the  very  little  that  is  good  in  the  spirit  of  this  age, 
and  eliminating  from  it  features  which  belong  to  differ- 
ent conditions  of  society  in  the  ages  which  invented 
Gothic,  and  are  inappropriate  now.  Thus  the  grotesque 
and  the  terrible  are  very  much  ignored  in  modern 
Gothic,  because  people  like  the  natural  more  than  the 
grotesque,  and  the  terrible  hardly  exists  in  this  age.  The 
time  has  passed  when  people  could  be  terrified  by  pic- 
tures of  hell,  or  frightened  out  of  their  lives  by  sculp- 
tured devils  armed  with  the  implements  of  torture.  In 
this  age  a man  is  good  because  he  loves  virtue,  not 
because  he  is  afraid  of  fire.  So  that  the  gurgoyles 
whose  savage  forms  awed  the  people  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  the  purgatories  which  by  anticipation  frizzled 
out  of  them  tithes  and  bequests,  made  fat  monks,  and 


292 


ART  EDUCATION. 


built  big  monasteries,  are  powerless  now,  either  to  instil 
fear  or  enforce  contributions. 

The  chaw-bacon  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and 
fifteenth  centuries  could  not  read,  write,  or  cipher ; but 
he  could  be  lacked  and  frightened,  and  skulk  off  into 
the  mire  of  servitude,  crossing  himself  the  while,  and 
praying  to  be  preserved  from  hell’s  torments. 

The  chaw-bacon  of  this  age  reads  and  writes  in  daily 
newspapers,  disputes  theological  points  in  the  Sunday 
school  of  the  bethel  he  patronizes  with  the  person  ap- 
pointed to  instruct  him  and  lead  him  to  heaven.  So  that, 
were  the  artists  of  this  day  capable  of  reproducing  in  art 
and  architecture  the  terrible  or  the  grotesque,  — which 
they  are  not,  — the  people  are  too  knowing  to  be  im- 
pressed by  them ; and  Gothic  architects  from  their 
own  feelings,  and  Gothic  sculptors  from  their  own  tastes, 
leave  out  this  species  of  mediaeval  symbolism  altogether, 
and  are  developing  something  healthier  and  nobler. 
Thus,  in  adapting  Gothic  architecture  to  the  times,  the 
grossness  and  puerility  of  ancient  symbolism  is  becoming 
eliminated,  and  the  stronghold  of  aesthetic  architecture 
appropriated,  its  birthright  taken  away,  and  the  sceptre 
passing  out  of  its  hands. 

That  which  has  so  conspicuously  occurred  in  archi- 
tecture has  happened  not  the  less  surely  in  painting. 
The  nimbus  of  the  saint,  which  with  its  golden  rays 
symbolized  the  holiness  of  the  subject,  has  disappeared 
utterly,  or  is  revived  occasionally,  like  miracle-plays,  — 
as  great  a curiosity  as  a piece  of  cloth  that  is  all  wool. 
The  one  great  effort  of  modern  daj's  to  return  to  the 
symbolic  in  painting  — tire  establishment  of  Pre- 
Raphaelism,  — an  effort  that  began  with  the  painting  of 
angular  saints  and  emaciated  sinners  — ended  by  produ- 
cing the  most  essentiall}-  nineteenth-century  artists  we 
have  amongst  us.  An  importation  from  the  fourteenth 


SYMBOLISM. 


293 


century  could  not  live  in  this  age,  — pre-eminently  a fast 
age,  — but  developed  in  a single  decade  of  years  into 
aestheticism,  which  previously  it  took  two  centuries  to 
produce.  Perhaps  nothing  in  the  realms  of  painting 
lias  done  so  much  to  link  the  past  with  the  present,  or 
create  in  our  times  a revival  of  the  symbolic,  as  the  re- 
introduction  of  stained  or  painted  glass.  There  is  in  it  so 
much  of  the  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages,  whilst  its  reli- 
gious subjects  and  bright  colors  accord  so  well  with  the 
allegorical  or  the  symbolic,  that  we  seem  almost  to  be 
in  the  Middle  Ages  in  presence  of  a good  stainecb-glass 
window.  Among  nations,  the  most  important  symbol 
is  the  flag,  representing  the  sovereignty  of  a country. 
This  is  the  most  comprehensive  symbol  possible  : beyond 
its  significance  there  can  lie  no  greater.  The  colors 
of  a regiment,  again,  form  the  symbol  of  its  courage ; 
and  the  field  must  be  bloody  or  the  demoralization 
great  before  they  are  resigned  to  the  foe.  Other  sym- 
bols are  the  crown  and  the  signet ; and,  amongst  savage 
tribes,  smoking  the  calumet  of  peace  (which  some  civi- 
lized people  think  not  a bad  practice),  in  token  that 
war  has  ceased,  and  burying  the  hatchet  for  the  same 
reason,  show  the  love  of  symbolism  even  at  the  lowest 
stages  of  civilization.  King  Arthur’s  Round  Table 
was  a symbol  of  equality,  having  no  head,  or  principal 
seat.  The  red  and  white  roses  were  symbols  which 
cost  our  mother  country  many  a desolated  hearth,  and 
filled  the  land  Avitli  widows  and  orphans. 

We  can  tell  the  tomb  of  a Crusader,  or  Knight  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  because  the  recumbent  effigy  has  its  legs 
crossed  : that  of  a bishop  is  distinguished  by  a shepherd’s 
crock  or  pastoral  staff ; rrhilst  the  keys  of  St.  Peter 
betoken  the  last  resting-place  of  an  officer  of  the  sover- 
eign pontiff  as  he  was,  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  he  is. 

The  rose  of  England,  the  thistle  of  Scotland,  and  the 


294 


ART  EDUCATION. 


shamrock  of  Ireland,  are  symbols  of  the  three  countries, 
— the  shortest  and  simplest  and  most  universally-under- 
stood method  of  delineating  in  art  the  nationalities 
which  form  the  United  Kingdom  ; and  leaving  the  old 
country,  to  come  home  for  an  instance,  perhaps  no  more 
perfect  symbolism  exists  in  the  world  than  that  which 
has  placed  a star  for  each  State  in  the  Union  upon  the 
flag  which  waves  gloriously  over  the  United  States  of 
America. 

In  Egypt,  the  Jews  fell  into  the  prevailing  symbol- 
ism which  surrounded  them,  and,  on  a memorable  occa- 
sion, marked  the  lintels  with  blood  : later  on,  the  con- 
cubine of  a Levite,  cut  into  twelve  pieces,  — each  piece 
being  sent  to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  — knit 
the  people  together  as  one  man  ; and,  in  revenge  for  her 
murder,  there  was  slain  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  every 
living  creature,  save  six  hundred  warriors  who  escaped. 
A terrible  symbol  that ! but  its  power  was  irresistible. 
In  thinking;  over  and  examining  into  the  bearings  of  the 
subject,  one  must  be  strongly  impressed  with  the  almost 
universal  tendency  of  the  human  mind  to  speak  figura- 
tively, and  the  love  which  is  felt  for  allegory  and  sj-rn- 
bol  at  the  two  extremes  of  civilization ; arising,  as  I 
believe,  from  the  value  and  universality  of  it  in  the 
rudest  state,  and  the  sentiment  and  religious  attachment 
to  it  in  the  more  advanced  degrees  of  civilization. 
Where  it  does  not  exist,  as  in  Greek  and  Roman  art, 
there  is  generally  a high  development  of  aesthetic  art, 
unaccompanied  by  the  religious  sentiment. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 

PURPOSE  now  to  take  a bird’s-eye  view  of  the 


subject  of  art  education,  and  am  going  to  ask  you  to 
accompany  me,  not  into  the  clouds  to  seek  after  the  ideal, 
but  sufficiently  away  from  the  details  of  earth  so  that  we 
may  see  this  matter  in  one  general  view,  — a comprehen- 
sive survey,  in  which  all  the  parts  of  our  view  will  fall 
into  their  relative  positions,  and  none  be  distorted  or 
ignored. 

It  is  usual  to  think  of  the  past  as  something  seen 
through  a glass,  darkly,  and  of  the  future  as  a vision 
belonging  to  that  style  of  architecture  which  concerns 
itself  principally  with  building  castles  in  the  air ; but 
the  present  we  regard  as  clear  and  real,  and  easily  to 
be  understood. 

The  past  we  had,  the  future  we  may  have,  the  pres- 
ent we  have  now ; and  our  memory  and  travail  in  the 
days  that  were  and  are  not,  and  our  hopes  and  faith  for 
the  days  that  are  not,  but  yet  may  be,  form  together 
a foundation  and  superstructure  in  which  we  enjoy  or 
understand  the  present,  which  now  is. 

Yet  it  is  given  to  very  few  rightly  to  comprehend  the 
present,  and  understand  its  closely-veiled  meanings. 
An  artist  knows  what  it  is  to  be  so  near  an  object  that 
he  cannot  see  it ; and  the  soldier  who  is  fighting  in  the 


295 


296 


ART  EDUCATION. 


thick  of  a hot  engagement  is  the  last  person  to  know- 
how the  battle  went.  We  are  the  artists  near  our  sub- 
ject, and  the  soldiers  fighting  in  the  battle  of  to-day. 

You  may  know  narrow,  microscopic  persons,  by  the 
undue  prominence  given  by  them  to  whatever  detail 
they  see  and  magnify  into  the  whole  subject.  There  are 
people  in  every  walk  of  life,  and  in  every  vocation,  who 
can  never  be  made  to  see  more  than  the  little  bit  of  any 
subject  which  is  within  an  inch  of  their  eyes ; and,  as  a 
rule,  they  are  those  who  most  loudly  assert  their  own 
rightness  and  other  people’s  error.  They  mention  in 
Qonfiding  moments  that  they  know  more  than  the}'  like 
to  tell,  and  prove  it  most  frequently  by  telling  more 
than  they  ever  knew.  They  are,  by  their  own  accounts, 
the  really  practical  people,  who  are  not  going  to  be  led 
away  by  any  nonsensical  theories,  but  will  hold  fast  by 
the  faith  as  it  is  in  St.  Ego. 

Then  there  are  the  telescopic  persons,  whose  eyes, 
shrouded  from  the  daylight  around  them,  gaze  wistfully 
back  into  the  ages  that  are  afar  off,  or  forward  into  the 
realms  of  the  future.  Very  harmless  folks  in  compari- 
son with  the  microscopists,  and  not  only  harmless  but 
helpful : for  out  of  them  come  the  generals  on  the  emi- 
nence, directing  the  battle  of  life,  telescope  in  hand,  and 
who,  by  virtue  of  their  broader  survey,  command  the 
movements  and  direct  the  power  of  other  men. 

Yet  all  are  not  generals  who  see  through  telescopes; 
and  some  telescopic  people  who  are  peering  disconso- 
lately into  the  golden  days  of  the  good  old  times,  or 
contemplating  with  rapture  the  vista  stretching  out  into 
the  millennial  future,  have  a habit  of  treading  on  other 
people’s  feet,  or  bruising  their  own  shins  against  material 
obstacles,  in  the  uncomfortable  present. 

These  two  little  instruments  for  seeing  smaller  and 
greater  tilings  than  can  be  grasped  by  common  eyesight, 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


297 


the  microscope  and  the  telescope,  are  typical  of  two 
phases  of  mind,  neither  of  which  alone  comprehends  the 
whole  truth. 

Then,  again,  there  is  the  clear  glance  of  healthy  vision, 
not  shrouded  to  confine  its  range,  nor  staring  directly  at 
the  noonday  sun,  whose  images  are  limited  by  natural 
laws  possibly,  hut  by  laws  which  display  as  much  of 
the  past  as  we  need,  as  much  of  the  future  as  is  good 
for  us,  and  all  there  is  of  the  present,  — vision  which  is 
not  hysterical  over  the  millions  of  dragons  which  inhabit 
a drop  of  water,  nor  hushed  with  terror  at  the  approach 
from  afar  of  armies  of  fallen  angels  who  are  coming  to 
disturb  our  peace.  That  is  rational  and  natural  vision, 
healthy  and  responsible.  It  is  only  by  knowledge  of 
the  past,  and  consideration  of  the  future,  that  the  best 
use  can  lie  made  of  the  present ; for  our  work,  unless 
it  be  controlled  by  law  and  directed  by  method,  — expe- 
rience crystallized  into  wisdom,  — will  he  of  no  great 
value  to  us  now  or  hereafter. 

In  my  recapitulation  I shall  endeavor,  so  far  as  one 
fallible  man  may,  to  avoid  falling  into  that  telescopic 
error  ; and  in  my  prospective  enunciations  "will  try  to 
keep  clear  of  unduly  enlarging  my  microscopic  atom. 

The  reason  why  I selected  this  comparatively  dry  sub- 
ject for  my  first  appearance  as  an  American  writer  is, 
because  it  has  enabled  me  to  say  something  upon  themes 
which  are  not  yet  exhausted  in  this  country,  but  which, 
on  the  contrary,  are  now  becoming  interesting  to  many. 
It  would  have  been  more  agreeable  to  me,  and  might 
have  been  more  merciful  to  my  readers,  had  I chosen 
some  topic  already  familiar  to  the  public  mind,  and 
thereby  enlisted  interest  and  sympathy  in  its  discussion. 

I am  not  unconscious  of  the  proportion  of  people 
who  want  to  be  amused  to  those  who  want  to  he  in- 
formed ; but  I would  rather  aspire  to  inform  a few  than 
amuse  many. 


298 


ART  EDUCATION. 


At  the  foundation  of  all  consideration  of  the  question 
of  industrial  art  lies  the  one  great  subject  of  education, 
necessary  alike  both  for  creation  and  appreciation ; and 
that  is  why  we  first  dwelt  upon  it.  It  is  also  the  first 
step  taken  here  to  bring  into  existence  a system  of  art 
culture.  And  perhaps  it  would  not  be  out  of  place  to 
look  for  a while  at  some  of  the  needs  that  have  existed 
in  other  places  and  times  for  art  work,  and  see  how  they 
have  been  met ; comparing  our  present  wants  with  past 
necessities,  and  measuring  the  remedies  found  effective 
in  other  cases  with  the  result  looked  for  here. 

The  association  of  art  with  religion  gave  it  for  ages 
the  character  of  an  exponent  of  pious  feelings  and  reli- 
gious thought ; and  some  of  the  greatest  triumphs  in  art 
have  been  either  inspired  by  or  made  the  vehicle  of  such 
thought.  There  are  not  wanting  those  who  advocate, 
that,  until  these  two  exalted  expressions  of  human  desires 
are  again  united,  the  highest  forms  of  art  will  be  im- 
possible to  us,  and  that,  with  the  decay  of  faith,  com- 
menced the  decline  of  art,  only  to  rise  again,  if  ever,  with 
the  revival  of  faith.  It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say,  that 
I have  no  sympathy  with  that  view,  because  it  assumes 
what  appears  to  me  untenable,  — that  faith  and  religion 
are  of  one  kind  only  ; and  what  is  referred  to  is  the 
Christian  religion.  Now,  we  may  alter  the  form  of  a 
thing  without  changing  its  area  or  its  substance,  or 
destroying  its  nature ; and  Ave  do  know  that  Greek  art 
was  as  highly  developed  and  as  perfect  a realization, 
as  any  subsequent  revival,  before  Christianity  was  in 
existence,  or  had  been  manifested  to  us  as  a creed.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  fading  away  of  heathen  creeds  and 
the  decline  of  Greek  art  did  not  prevent  the  glorious 
art  reAUval  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  in 
Europe  ; nor  will  many  be  made  to  believe  that  the  faith 
of  the  people  in  those  centuries  was  less,  or  less  pure, 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


299 


than  that  of  the  believers  in  the  deities  of  Mount 
Olympus. 

Though  the  religion  had  changed,  the  art  element 
remained  the  same,  moulded  only  by  the  difference  in 
race  and  creed  into  national  or  theological  expression. 

The  same  change  is  undoubtedly  occurring  now  both 
in  art  and  creed.  The  cherished  idols  of  former  epochs 
are  broken  and  gone  ; and  the  last  leaps  of  the  accumu- 
lating avalanche  will  be  more  rapid  and  destructive 
than  its  first  sliding  motion.  Yet  we  should  be  both 
forgetful  of  history  and  wilfully  blind  to  that  which 
surrounds  us  if  we  believed  that  transformation  meant 
destruction,  and  guilty  of  grievous  folly  if  we  mourned 
uselessly  over  the  irrevocable  change. 

The  Panathenaic  frieze  will  not  be  received  again 
from  mortal  hands,  and  holy  families  will  never  again 
be  painted ; but  if  either  or  both,  in  some  new  develop- 
ment of  society  or  religion,  be  demanded  of  the  human 
family,  then  Phidias  or  Raphael  will  come  again  in  the 
flesh  to  provide  them  in  some  new  form. 

I do  not  think  that  another  distinctly-religious  picture 
will  ever  be  again  produced  in  the  limited  sense  at- 
tached to  that  name  ; for  even  the  best  modern  artists, 
with  perhaps  one  great  exception,  successful  in  all  else, 
have  made  utter  failures  of  those  subjects : and  more- 
over, as  Ave  are  iioav  circumstanced,  I do  not  think  that 
this  is  a matter  of  very  deep  regret.  The  religious 
picture  was  a sort  of  triangular  mixture  of  the  Apostle’s 
Creed,  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  a daily  newspaper  ; 
and,  as  we  are  beginning  now  to  keep  all  these  excellent 
things  apart  from  one  another,  there  will  be  no  need  of 
further  mixture  from  that  prescription. 

But,  seriously,  the  picture  of  the  fifteenth  century  was 
the  creed,  sermon,  and  book  of  the  people  ; and  so  it  is 
now  where  society  is  much  in  the  same  condition  as  it 


800 


ART  EDUCATION. 


was  then,  — which,  if  any  one  doubts,  let  him  betake 
himself  to  a village  in  Belgium,  or  the  Forest  of  the 
Ardennes,  where  the  kirtled  maidens  still  wear  home- 
spun  raiment,  and  where  Gascony  love-songs  are  lightly 
warbled  by  the  merry  spinsters,  sitting  outside  the  cot- 
tage-doors at  eventide,  whilst  the  shovel-hatted  priest 
smiles  approvingly  at  them.  Let  him  go  to  the  ancient 
church,  and  watch  the  devotional  exercises  of  the  people, 
— not  at  mass-time,  for  that  is  mere  ceremonial,  but  when 
people  steal  into  the  sacred  building,  which  is  always 
open  day  and  night,  to  say  their  prayers  or  murmur 
their  praise.  He  will  see  what  I have  seen  hundreds 
of  times  : that  perhaps  a shoeless  peasant-woman  will  go 
and  sit  or  kneel  for  even  hours,  steadfastly  gazing  at  a 
picture  of  Christ’s  passion,  or  the  crucifixion,  or  a group 
ot'  the  Holy  Family,  until  it  seems  to  magnetize  her. 
She  is  addressed  by  it  through  her  sense  of  sight,  ap- 
pealed to  on  her  human  nature  by  all  the  influences  that 
affect  a sensitive  creature.  The  language  is  unmistak- 
able : it  is  neither  threatening  nor  fawning,  clouded  by 
dogma  nor  mystified  by  hard  words.  She  understands 
it,  because  she  is  a human  being,  not  because  she  is  a 
Catholic  ; for  probably  she  never  learned  to  read,  and 
does  not  know  the  meaning  of  that  word.  And  it 
speaks  to  her  eloquently ; and  thus  in  contemplation, 
often  in  deep  study,  it  is  to  her  creed,  sermon,  book. 

Now,  I am  far  from  saying  that  the  time  for  such  an 
exercise  as  that  is  passed  away  altogether  ; for,  to  those 
who  have  the  priceless  blessing  of  honest  leisure,  it- 
might  not  be  injurious  if  they  sat  as  often  in  contem- 
plation before  a good  picture  as  they  do  before  a bad 
play  or  a trashy  book.  But  if  we  look  around  us,  and 
think  how  far  the  Ardennes  village  resembles  modern 
American  cities,  we  shall  see  how  much  our  habits  and 
thoughts  are  likely  to  be  influenced  by  the  same  sort  of 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


301 


agencies.  We  print  our  books,  we  say  our  creeds,  and 
we  listen  to  our  sermons  ; and  with  that  change  of 
circumstances  the  vocation  of  the  religious  picture  is 
gone. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  as  much  purity  of  feeling,  as  much 
of  motive  for  good  purposes,  in  many  modern  paintings, 
as  in  the  fifteenth-century  holy  families ; only  the  best 
artists  of  modern  days,  not  being  willing  or  able  to  paint 
such  works,  tell  their  stories  in  their  ohm  way,  usually 
from  secular  subjects,  — social  or  historical  commentaries 
upon  sentiments  they  delight  to  honor  or  wish  to  con- 
demn. Here  I am  speaking  only  of  the  best  work  in  all 
countries : the  worst  is  about  the  same  at  all  times  and 
in  all  countries,  — neither  good,  bad,  nor  indifferent, 
only  misapplied  labor. 

The  art  of  the  future  will  be  different  from  that  which 
has  preceded  it,  just  as  the  thought  of  the  present  day 
is  in  channels  which  are  as  yet  untravelled  if  they  are 
not  new.  But  I do  not  believe  it  will  be  a degraded  or 
an  incompetent  development.  The  education  of  to-day 
is  better  than  it  ever  has  been ; better  because  broader 
and  fairer,  and  not  monopolized  by  the  few.  Technical 
skill  in  art  is  as  great  as  in  the  fifteenth  century,  — Millais 
paints  as  well  as  Giorgione ; and,  when  modern  thought 
finds  its  expressive  formula,  we  shall  have  as  great  work 
done  then  as  before,  only  it  will  be  of  a totally  different 
sentiment.  There  may  be  as  wide  a departure  from 
present  types  as  ours  is  already  from  mediaeval ; but  I 
have  faith  enough  to  believe  that  it  will,  in  many  fea- 
tures, show  progress  and  not  decay.  One  great  pecu- 
liarity of  modern  art  is  its  popularization  by  reproduc- 
tions ; and  it  may,  to  some  extent,  explain  the  archaic 
change  that  has  occurred  in  our  sentiment  with  regard 
to  the  whole  subject.  The  artist  now  appeals  to  the 
peopl c,  not  only  by  his  original  work,  but  by  engravings, 


802 


ART  EDUCATION. 


photographs,  and  a multitude  of  other  channels.  Where 
the  men  of  old  painted  for  a congregation  or  a city,  men 
of  the  present  paint  for  a country  or  a continent ; so 
that,  instead  of  appealing  to  a few  and  their  special 
forms  of  delight,  the  modern  artist  appeals  to  the  many. 
That  peculiarity,  of  course,  gives  a sort  of  trivial  or  tem- 
porary character  to  modern  art,  which  contrasts  unfa- 
vorably with  the  quiet,  sterling  character  of  older  art. 

But  it  is  a change  that  has  taken  place  in  almost 
every  thing  else  as  well.  In  proportion  as  we  increase 
the  power  of  many  men  politically,  we  decrease  the 
power  of  some.  The  tendency  now  is  towards  diffusion 
of  every  thing,  — power,  land,  money,  government,  art ; 
and  new  phases  will  be  assumed  in  all,  not  of  necessity 
either  better  or  worse  than  what  is  displaced,  but  having 
original  features. 

Where  men  once  built  a grand  cathedral,  we  build 
twenty  churches ; and  that  is  a sign  and  a type  of  many 
other  changes.  Where  the  stake  once  stood  with  its 
holocaust  of  martyrs,  asserting  uniformity  of  creed  and 
worship,  we  erect  a monument  in  commemoration  of 
religious  liberty.  The  pictures  which  once  only  hung 
in  solemn  grandeur  in  churches  and  halls  now  are  to  be 
found,  as  engravings,  enlivening  the  house  and  the 
cottage. 

This  alteration  in  sentiment  has  been  brought  about, 
like  all  other  great  changes,  gradually,  and  without  any 
special  effort,  — spontaneously.  It  is  perhaps  more 
directly  traceable  to  education  than  to  any  other  cause  ; 
and,  in  the  elevation  and  development  of  that  blessing, 
we  may  expect  many  other  great  transformations 
besides. 

In  the  matter  of  art  education,  we  have  not  much  to 
learn  from  the  remote  past.  Almost  all  that  has  been 
done  in  it.  except  for  professional  or  trade  education,  has 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


303 


been  initiated  in  this  century.  The  trade  schools  of  the 
French  Bronzists,  the  Free  Industrial  School  at  Tou- 
louse, the  drawing  and  painting  school  of  the  Sevres  por- 
celain manufactory,  and  a few  others,  are,  before  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  most  important,  if 
not  the  only  efforts  to  give  technical  art  education,  even 
in  France,  which  lays  claim  to  be  the  most  highly-edu- 
cated art  producer  of  modern  times.  Professional  schools 
have  existed  longer  than  that  in  most  countries.  Thus 
the  British  Royal  Academy  is  just  one  hundred  years 
old ; and  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  is,  I believe,  older. 
Schools  and  classes  for  art  study  used  not  to  be  the 
accepted  form  of  art  education  ; but  the  young  artist  was 
sent  into  the  studio  of  a great  artist  to  clean  his  brushes 
and  palette  and  pick  up  his  style.  That  accounts,  also, 
for  the  prevalence  of  similar  modes  and  thoughts  which 
produced  schools.  Style  was  inherited  by  a pupil  from 
his  master  ; and,  though  often  varied  by  individual  pupils 
of  a great  master,  the  prevailing  influence  of  an  acknowl- 
edged leader  is  felt  in  contemporary  and  subsequent 
works. 

But  the  public  and  the  art  workman  have  been 
ignored  in  the  dispensation  of  art  education  in  the  cen- 
turies gone  by,  so  far  as  means  of  instruction  went.  This 
must  be  qualified  by  the  admission  that  the  public  has 
had,  in  countries  where  professional  art  has  been  long 
practised,  the  insensible  education  obtainable  by  public 
collections  and  monuments.  And  that  is  not  a slight 
advantage,  either  in  the  formation  of  general  taste  or 
the  development  of  skill  and  power  in  the  individual. 
The  influence  of  good  buildings  and  galleries  of  art  open 
free  to  the  public  is  a rapid  fertilizer  of  the  artistic  spirit 
in  all,  and  creates  it  in  many. 

People  whose  eyes  are  constantly,  or  even  occasion- 
ally, seeing  beautiful  forms,  are  receiving  an  education, 


304 


ART  EDUCATION. 


whether  they  know  it  or  not ; and  thus,  in  countries 
such  as  Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  public  taste  is 
higher  than  it  is  in  other  places  where  art  is  not  ever- 
present in  street,  church,  and  gallery.  This  fact,  the 
reproductive  quality  of  art,  was  rather  curiously  illus- 
trated by  a circumstance  happening  some  years  ago, 
which  demonstrated  two  things : the  first,  that  origi- 
nality depends  upon  knowledge  of  the  works  of  other 
men,  and  the  constant  presence  of  artistic  influences  from 
without ; and  the  second,  that  the  withdrawal  of  such 
an  influence  is  destructive  of  art  power. 

'A  manufacturer  of  fabrics,  on  the  design  for  which 
much  of  their  value  in  the  market  depended,  a resident 
in  a manufacturing  district  in  the  north  of  England,  had 
been  paying  a large  sum  annually  to  foreign  artists  for 
designs  (and  that  points  to  a time  gone  by,  so  that  I 
shall  hurt  no  one’s  feelings  hy  mentioning  the  incident)  : 
conceiving  that  he  would  be  better  served,  and  obtain 
a more  even  quality  of  excellence  in  his  productions, 
if  he  employed  one  good  designer  entirely  in  his  factory, 
he  found  out  the  best  designer  in  Paris,  from  whom  he 
had  long  purchased  his  best  work,  and  invited  him  to 
become  his  master-workman,  offering  a salary  almost  as 
great  as  that  of  a cabinet  minister  to  tempt  him  to 
comply.  The  artist  gave  up  his  beautiful  Paris,  and 
located  himself  in  a luxurious  home  on  the  bleak  hill- 
side of  a Yorkshire  moor,  and  within  sight  of  the  tall 
mill-chimney  and  town  where  his  designs  were  manu- 
factured. For  a short  time  the  experiment  succeeded; 
but  he  rapidly  found,  that,  among  the  smoke  and  dirt 
and  hideous  ugliness  of  a manufacturing  town,  virtue 
was  going  out  of  him.  His  work  became  first  tame  and 
then  ugly,  and  within  a year  he  threw  up  his  appoint- 
ment ; confessing,  that,  in  such  a place,  he  could  not 
design,  and  what  power  he  had  originally  possessed  he 
was  losing  day  by  day. 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


305 


That  is  a complete  confirmation  of  w hah  John  Raskin 
says  in  liis  “ Two  Paths,”  in  a lecture  delivered  in  a 
Yorkshire  manufacturing  town.  It  is  as  follows  : — 

“ Beautiful  art  can  only  be  produced  by  people  who 
have  beautiful  things  about  them,  and  leisure  to  look  at 
them  ; and,  unless  you  provide  some  elements  of  beauty 
for  your  workmen  to  be  surrounded  by,  you  will  find 
that  no  element  of  beauty  can  be  invented  by  them.” 

That  is  a principle  recognized  by  the  founders  of  fine- 
arts  museums,  and  will,  I hope,  to  some  extent,  meet 
the  difficulty  here.  In  a beautiful  contrast  of  two 
scenes,  Ruskin  further  illustrates  his  meaning  in  a short 
passage  I must  quote,  because  it  is  too  original  to  de- 
scribe : — 

“ I was  struck  forcibly  by  the  bearing  of  this  great  fact 
upon  our  modern  efforts  at  ornamentation  in  an  after- 
noon walk,  last  week,  in  the  suburbs  of  one  of  our 
large  manufacturing  towns.  I was  thinking  of  the  dif- 
ference in  the  effect  upon  the  designer’s  mind  between 
the  scene  which  I then  came  upon  and  the  scene  which 
would  have  presented  itself  to  the  eyes  of  any  designer 
of  the  Middle  Ages  when  he  left  his  workshop.  Just 
outside  the  town  I came  upon  an  old  English  cottage  or 
mansion,  — I hardly  know  which  to  call  it,  — set  close 
under  the  hill,  and  beside  the  river,  perhaps  built  some- 
where in  the  Charleses’  times,  with  mullioned  windows, 
and  a low,  arched  porch,  round  which,  in  the  little  trian- 
gular garden,  one  can  imagine  the  family  as  they  used 
to  sit  in  old  summer  times,  — the  ripple  of  the  river  heard 
faintly  through  the  sweetbrier  hedge,  and  the  sheep  on 
the  far-off  wolds  shining  in  the  evening  sunlight.  There, 
uninhabited  for  many  and  many  a year,  it  has  been  left 
in  unregarded  havoc  of  ruin,  — the  garden-gate  still 
swung  loose  to  its  latch ; the  garden,  blighted  utterly 
in  a field  of  ashes,  not  even  a weed  taking  root  there ; 


806 


ART  EDUCATION. 


the  roof  torn  into  shapeless  rents,  the  shutters  hanging 
about  the  windows  in  rags  of  rotten  wood ; before  its 
gate,  the  stream  which  had  gladdened  it  now  soaking 
slowly  by,  black  as  ebony,  and  thick  with  curdling 
scum  ; the  bank  above  it  trodden  into  unctuous,  sooty 
slime ; far  in  front  of  it,  between  it  and  the  old  hills, 
the  furnaces  of  the  city  foaming  forth  perpetual  plague 
of  sulphurous  darkness ; the  volumes  of  their  storm- 
clouds  coiling  low  over  a waste  of  grassless  fields,  fenced 
from  each  other,  not  by  hedges,  but  by  slabs  of  square 
stone,  like  gravestones,  riveted  together  with  iron. 
That  was  your  scene  for  the  designer’s  contemplation 
in  his  afternoon  walk  at  Rochdale.  Now  fancy  what 
was  the  scene  which  presented  itself,  in  his  afternoon 
walk,  to  a designer  of  the  Gothic  school  of  Pisa,  — Nino 
Pisano  or  any  of  his  men. 

“ On  each  side  o|  a bright  river,  he  saw  rise  a line 
of  brighter  palaces,  arched  and  pillared,  and  inlaid  with 
deep-red  porphyry  and  with  serpentine ; along  the 
quays  before  their  gates  were  riding  troops  of  knights, 
noble  in  face  and  form,  dazzling  in  crest  and  shield,  — 
horse  and  man  one  labyrinth  of  quaint  color  and  gleam- 
ing light,  the  purple,  the  silver,  and  scarlet  fringes 
flowing  over  the  strong  limbs  and  clashing  mail  like 
sea-waves  over  rocks  at  sunset ; opening  on  each  side 
from  the  river  were  gardens,  courts,  and  cloisters ; long 
successions  of  white  pillars  among  wreaths  of  vine ; 
leaping  of  fountains  through  buds  of  pomegranate 
and  orange  ; and  still  along  the  garden-paths,  and  under 
and  through  the  crimson  of  the  pomegranate  shadows, 
moving  slowly,  groups  of  the  fairest  women  that  Italy 
ever  saw,  — fairest,  because  purest  and  thoughtf idlest, 
trained  in  all  high  knowledge  as  in  all  courteous  art,  — 
in  dance,  in  song,  in  sweet  wit,  in  lofty  learning,  in 
loftier  courage,  in  loftiest  love,  — able  alike  to  cheer,  to 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


307 


encliant,  or  save,  the  souls  of  men.  Above  all  this 
scenery  of  perfect  human  life  rose  dome  and  bell-tower, 
burning  with  white  alabaster  and  gold ; beyond  dome 
and  bell-tower  the  slopes  of  mighty  hills,  hoary  with 
olive ; far  in  the  north,  above  a purple  sea  of  peaks 
of  solemn  Apennine,  the  clear,  sharp-cloven  Carrara 
mountains  sent  up  their  steadfast  flames  of  marble 
summit  into  amber  sky ; the  great  sea  itself,  scorching 
with  expanse  of  light,  stretching  from  their  feet  to 
the  Gorgonian  Isles ; and  over  all  these,  ever  present, 
near  or  far,  seen  through  the  leaves  of  vines,  or  imaged 
with  all  its  march  of  clouds  in  the  Arno’s  stream,  or  set 
with  its  depth  of  blue  close  against  the  golden  hair  and 
burning  cheek  of  lady  and  knight,  that  untroubled  and 
sacred  sky,  which  was  to  all  men,  in  those  days  of  inno- 
cent faith,  indeed  the  unquestioned  abode  of  spirits,  as 
the  earth  was  of  men ; and  which  opened  straight 
through  its  gates  of  cloud,  and  veils  of  dew,  into  the 
awfulness  of  the  eternal  world,  — a heaven  in  which 
every  cloud  that  passed  was  literally  the  chariot  of  an 
angel,  and  every  ray  of  its  evening  and  morning  streamed 
from  the  throne  of  God. 

“ What  think  you  of  that  for  a school  of  design  ? I do 
not  bring  this  contrast  before  you  as  a ground  of  hope- 
lessness in  our  task : neither  do  I look  for  any  possible 
renovation  of  the  Republic  of  Pisa  at  Bradford  in  the 
nineteenth  century ; but  I put  it  before  you  in  order 
that  you  may  be  aware  precisely  of  the  kind  of  difficulty 
you  have  to  meet,  and  may  then  consider  with  your- 
selves how  far  you  can  meet  it.  To  men  surrounded 
by  the  depressing  and  monotonous  circumstances  of 
English  manufacturing  life,  depend  upon  it,  design  is 
simply  impossible.  This  is  the  most  distinct  of  all  the 
experiences  I have  had  in  dealing  with  the  modern 
workman.  He  is  intelligent  and  ingenious  in  the 


308 


ART  EDUCATION. 


highest  degree,  subtle  in  touch,  and  keen  in  sight ; but 
he  is,  generally  speaking,  wholly  destitute  of  designing 
power. 

“ And  if  you  want  to  give  him  the  power,  you  must 
give  him  the  materials,  and  put  him  in  the  circum- 
stances for  it.  Design  is  not  the  offspring  of  idle 
fancy : it  is  the  studied  result  of  accumulative  observa- 
tion and  delightful  habit.  Without  observation  and 
experience,  no  design ; without  peace  and  pleasurable- 
ness in  occupation,  no  design ; and  all  the  lecturings 
and  teachings  and  prizes  and  principles  of  art  in  the 
world  are  of  no  use,  so  long  as  you  don’t  surround  your 
men  with  happy  influences  and  beautiful  things.  It  is 
impossible  for  them  to  have  right  ideas  about  color, 
unless  you  see  the  lovely  colors  of  nature  unspoiled ; 
impossible  for  them  to  supply  beautiful  incident  and 
action  in  their  ornament,  unless  the}’  see  beautiful  inci- 
dent and  action  in  the  world  about  them.  Inform  their 
minds,  refine  their  habits,  and  you  form  and  refine  their 
designs ; but  keep  them  illiterate,  uncomfortable,  and 
in  the  midst  of  unbeautiful  things,  and  whatever  they 
do  will  still  be  spurious,  vulgar,  and  valueless.” 

Yet  even  where  works  of  art  are  not  available  for 
public  exhibition,  and  where  the  surrounding  circum- 
stances have  not  been  provocative  of  taste,  it  has  been 
found  possible  to  create  much  artistic  feeling  by  educa- 
tion. The  class-room,  supplied  with  beautiful  details  of 
ancient  art  and  intelligent  instruction  to  explain  them, 
has  not  been  wholly  uninfluential,  even  in  the  very 
locality  where  the  lecture  of  Mr.  Ruskin  was  delivered, 
or  to  which  Iris  comparison  refers. 

And,  though  I most  thoroughly  believe  that  it  is  infi- 
nitely easier  for  people  to  become  tasteful  in  their  habits 
and  skilful  in  their  works  where  there  is  an  art  atmos- 
phere which  they  breathe  from  their  infanc}r  to  their 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


309 


old  age,  there  must  he,  of  necessity,  times  when  taste 
and  skill  have  preceded  these  influences,  or  the  build- 
ings originally  would  never  have  been  built  nor  the 
pictures  painted : so  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  inner 
education  must  precede  and  create  the  outer  ; and  then 
there  will  be  a re-action  from  without,  and  all  will  go  on 
merrily. 

The  one  grand  advance  made  upon  the  action  of  the 
past  is  the  recognition  of  the  principle,  that  art  educa- 
tion must  be  general  to  be  efficient ; that  human  beings 
are  fairly  treated  by  Nature  in  this  matter,  as  in  some 
others,  by  her  impartially  dealing  out  to  all  the  element- 
ary faculties  of  sight  and  understanding  to  receive,  and 
voice  and  touch  to  express.  When  drawing  was  by  law 
introduced  into  the  common  schools  of  the  State  of 
Massachusetts,  there  was  done  by  a stroke  what  it  took 
•European  nations  a good  many  centuries  to  accomplish, 
and  some  of  whom  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  realizing. 
Yet  where  any  solid  advancement  has  been  made,' either 
in  the  fine  arts  or  the  industrial  arts,  it  is  to  a great 
degree  owing  to  the  intelligence  displayed  by  this  rec- 
ognition of  general  natural  powers. 

For  the  general  culture  obtained  through  the  study 
of  art,  even  in  its  lowest  elements,  cuts  both  ways : it 
provides  not  only  the  opportunity  for  development  of  , 
exceptional  taste  and  skill,  but  furnishes  also  the  abil- 
ity to  appreciate  good  art  in  those  who  do  not  possess 
unusual  attainments.  It  creates  the  demand  as  well  as 
the  supply,  tills  the  field,  and  sows  the  seed  which  is  to 
fructify  into  the  harvest  of  the  future,  makes  the  audi- 
ence and  the  orator,  the  discerning  public  and  the 
designing  craftsman. 

And  that  is  the  only  consistent  basis  upon  which 
education  can  be  faithfully  carried  on,  — the  principle 
of  treating  all  alike,  and  leaving  to  individual  circum- 


310 


ART  EDUCATION. 


stances  the  use  to  which  its  developments  may  be 
applied. 

We  have  the  advantage  of  beginning  with  that  prin- 
ciple acknowledged : the  net  is  large  enough  to  catch  all 
fish ; and  we  shall  find  in  time  that  no  possibly  great 
artist  will  be  “ born  to  blush  unseen  ; ” but  we  shall  find 
him  early  in  the  rough,  and  catch  him,  and  hew  out  of 
him  the  shape  his  nature  wants  to  assume.  The  com- 
pulsory teaching  of  drawing  in  the  common  schools  is 
such  a step,  that  all  which  may  be  required  afterwards 
will  follow  as  a natural  consequence.  In  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  the  history  of  the  American  school  of 
painters  is  begun : before  two  years  ago  individual 
artists  may  have  existed  at  long  intervals  and  with  very 
varying  success.  But,  when  histoiy  speaks  of  the  future 
eminence  of  New  England  in  art  matters,  it  will  start 
with  a statement  of  the  brilliant  light  of  Stuart  and 
some  others  illuminating  the  sm-rounding  darkness,  and 
pass  on  directly  to  the  legislative  acts  of  1870,  which 
say,  that,  in  future,  drawing  is  to  be  taught  to  all  chil- 
dren in  the  common  schools  ; and  then  art  history  com- 
menced. 

What  is  now  being  done  in  European  countries  to 
advance  the  interests  of  industry,  by  elevating  the  taste 
and  skill  of  workmen,  must  necessarily  be  a matter  of 
much  interest  to  us  just  now,  when  we  are  trying  to 
bring  our  workmen  up  to  the  same  level.  In  many  parts 
of  Germany  instruction  in  industrial  art  in  night  classes 
is  gratuitous,  as  it  is  here  ; and  almost  every  important 
village  even  has  classes.  In  France  the  municipal 
schools  are  not  all  of  them  free,  though  a few  are  ; and 
the  immediate  money  value  of  art  power  keeps  the 
schools  always  crowded  with  students. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  retrospect  with  regard  to 
French  art  education  is  that  which  reviews  the  effects 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


311 


upon  them  of  the  English  International  Exhibition  of 
1862.  The  enormous  strides  which  art  education  had 
made  in  England  since  the  previous  great  exhibition  in 
1851,  and  which  was  reflected  in  every  object  of  indus- 
trial art  displayed  in  the  exhibition  of  1862,  set  the 
sensitive  French  manufacturers  at  work  inquiring  the 
cause,  fearful  that  their  own  industrial  art  supremacy 
was  endangered.  A commission  which  visited  England, 
and  examined  into  the  subject  with  characteristic  saga- 
city, soon  discovered  the  cause  of  improvement,  and 
paid  special  attention  to  the  administration  of  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  and  its  training-school  for  art  mas- 
ters. The  city  of  Paris,  always  ready  to  advance  art, 
appointed  a commission  in  1863  to  examine  and  draw 
up  a scheme  for  re-organizing  the  municipal  art  schools, 
and  suggest  some  plan  by  which  the  whole  system  of 
instruction  could  be  improved.  The  recommendations 
of  this  commission  embraced  the  following  sugges- 
tions : — 

1.  The  holding  of  annual  examinations  for  granting  diplomas  to 
male  and  female  professors  of  drawing,  and  to  whom  alone  the  city- 
schools  should  be  intrusted. 

2.  Division  of  the  teaching  into  artistic  and  geometrical  education, 
in  order  that  special  masters  might  be  employed  in  each  of  these 
departments. 

3.  The  selection  and  production  of  superior  models  and  examples. 

4.  Improvement  of  the  class-rooms,  and  separation  of  the  various 
classes. 

5.  Annual  competitions  amongst  all  classes,  in  order  to  stimulate 
the  zeal  of  the  pupils. 

6.  Better  remuneration  of  teachers,  combining  a fixed  sum  in  con- 
junction with  fees  dependent  on  the  number  of  pupils  attending  the 
schools,  the  number  admitted  to  the  competitions,  and  the  number  of 
rewards  there  obtained.  [These  regulations  were  borrowed  entirely 
from  South  Kensington.] 

7.  Drawing  to  be  made  obligatory  in  all  the  public  schools,  whether 
for  boys  or  girls. 


312 


ART  EDUCATION. 


8.  Nomination  of  two  inspectoi's  to  watch  the  progress  of  the 
schools,  and  report  on  it,  and  upon  the  improvements  which  seemed 
called  for. 

Those  recommendations  having  been  adopted  with 
some  few  modifications,  and  accepted  by  the  minister  of 
public  instruction,  the  plan  was  immediately  carried 
into  operation  by  an  examination  of  candidates  for 
teacherships  in  the  city.  The  value  of  this  step  may 
be  seen  by  its  results.  The  first  examination  was  con- 
ducted in  1865  ; and,  of  persons  who  believed  them- 
selves eligible  for  such  appointments,  there  were  a hun- 
dred and  seventy-one  who  presented  themselves.  Of  this 
number,  only  twenty-seven  passed  in  the  artistic,  and 
only  thirteen  in  the  geometrical  subjects,  — a practical 
commentary  upon  taking  people  at  their  own  estimate  ; 
for,  without  such  a test,  there  would  have  been  a hun- 
dred and  seventy-one  persons  ready  for  positions  as  art 
teachers,  of  whose  qualification  no  evidence  of  a satis- 
factory kind  could  be  given,  and  who,  when  tested, 
shrunk  away  to  forty  in  number,  the  rest  presumably 
going  back  again  to  their  studies  to  create  or  increase 
their  qualifications.  But  in  1866,  ninety  females  becom- 
ing candidates  for  diplomas,  eleven  only  received  them  ; 
and  in  1867,  of  ninety-two  male  candidates,  nineteen  only 
were  not  found  wanting.  This  is  conclusive  evidence 
of  the  need  for  such  a professional  examination  for 
teachers’  diplomas  as  that  suggested  in  Chap.  I.,  page 
80  ; and  1 feel  convinced,  that,  until  it  is  established  in 
America,  there  can  be  no  great  results  secured  for  art 
education  here. 

The  establishment  of  the  normal  school  at  Cluny,  for 
the  training  of  art  and  science  teachers,  by  M.  Duruy, 
after  the  law  of  I860  was  passed,  was  a powerful  step 
in  the  right  direction.  That  law  laid  down  the  axiom, 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


313 


that  education  in  art  and  science  should  not  be  consid- 
ered subordinate  to  classical  education,  but  of  the  same 
rank ; and  M.  Duruy,  proceeding  on  this  view  in  the 
law  which  owed  its  origin  to  him,  carried  it  out  by 
organizing  at  Cluny  a noble  institution  for  the  advance- 
ment of  industrial  education  in  art  and  science.  The 
old  abbey  of  the  Benedictines,  then  unoccupied,  was 
transformed  into  a normal  art  school,  with  its  courses 
of  study  arranged  for  two  years,  but  permission  in  spe- 
cial cases  for  talented  pupils  to  remain  an  additional 
year ; admission  being  given  only  to  those  between 
eighteen  and  twenty-five  years  of  age.  The  whole  cost 
to  each  pupil  is  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  dollars 
a year  (gold)  for  instruction,  board,  lodging,  and  even 
washing  and  repairs  of  clothing. 

Both  in  France  and  Germany  a greater  prominence  is 
given  to  what  are  called  schools  of  industrial  sciences 
than  to  schools  of  art,  in  which  art  study  forms  a section 
of  the  general  plan  of  industrial  education. 

It  seems  to  me,  that,  now  the  question  of  industrial 
schools  is  being  so  much  discussed  here,  very  valuable 
information  concerning  such  schemes  might  be  obtained 
from  an  examination  of  these  foreign  schools  by  some 
intelligent  educationists  sent  for  that  purpose  by  the 
Government  of  this  country. 

In  England  the  experience  is  the  reverse  of  this,  and 
scientific  or  industrial  classes  form  a part  of  the  schools 
of  art.  But  the  demand  for  and  extreme  popularity  of 
scientific  study,  as  compared  with  that  of  art,  may  be 
estimated  by  one  fact  gleaned  from  the  annual  blue- 
book,  or  report  of  the  government  department  of  science 
and  art  for  the  year  1870.  Though  the  organization 
and  examination  of  science  schools  and  classes  are  not 
yet  ten  years  old,  and  five  years  ago  there  were  hardly 
any  established,  yet,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1870,  there 


314 


ART  EDUCATION. 


were  943  schools  of  industrial  science  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  having  2,684  classes,  and  34,435  students  in 
them ; whilst,  at  the  end  of  twenty  years’  experience  in 
establishing  schools  of  art,  there  were  at  the  end  of 
1870  only  117  schools  and  20,290  students. 

In  addition  to  these  schools  and  students,  it  is,  how- 
ever, only  right  to  add,  that  of  night  classes  for  indus- 
trial drawing,  similar  to  what  have  been  established  in 
the  State  of  Massachusetts  and  taught  by  certificated 
art  teachers,  there  were  352  schools  and  12,119  students ; 
and  the  public  schools  which  were  instructed  by  certifi- 
cated art  teachers  numbered  1,359  schools  and  147,243 
pupils : all  these  returns  being  for  the  same  year,  1870, 
and  all  the  schools  and  classes  and  individual  pupils 
having  been  examined  by  the  government  inspectors 
during  the  year. 

It  is  rather  interesting  to  note  the  rapid  progress  made 
in  this  subject  in  four  years  in  the  United  Kingdom  in 
the  matter  of  art : — 

In  1866,  night  schools  instructed,  32;  in  1870,  352 

“ public  schools  “ 560 ; “ 1,359 

“ schools  of  art  established,  99 ; “ 119 

In  industrial  science,  though  I cannot  compare  the 
progress  made  in  four  years,  I can  say,  from  my  own 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  that,  in  the  year  1866,  science 
classes  were  rare,  and  at  the  end  of  1870  the  report 
shows  2,684  classes  examined ; and,  in  addition  to  that, 
I have  incidentally  heard  from  science  teachers,  that,  in 
1871,  the  number  of  classes  before  existing  was  almost 
doubled,  and  the  students  increasing  in  the  same  ratio. 

To  show  the  practical  nature  of  the  sciences  studied 
in  these  classes,  I will  here  enumerate  a list  of  the  sub- 
jects of  instruction : — 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


315 


1.  Practical  plane  and  solid  geometry. 

2.  Machine  construction  and  drawing. 

3.  Building  construction  and  naval  architecture. 

4,  5.  Pure  mathematics. 

6.  Theoretical  mathematics. 

7.  Applied  mechanics. 

8.  Acoustics,  light,  and  heat. 

9.  Magnetism  and  electricity. 

10.  Inorganic  chemistry. 

11.  Organic  chemistry. 

12.  Geology. 

13.  Mineralogy. 

14.  Animal  physiology. 

15.  Zoology. 

16.  Vegetable  anatomy  and  physiology. 

1 7.  Systematic  and  economic  botany. 

18.  Mining. 

19.  Metallurgy. 

20.  Navigation. 

21.  Nautical  astronomy. 

22.  Steam. 

23.  Physical  geography. 

The  stages  of  art  instruction  also  number  twenty- 
three,  with  above  sixty  subdivisions,  and  are  as  practical 
in  their  bearing  on  industrial  art  as  the  above  subjects 
are  upon  industrial  science. 

There  may  be  cases  in  other  countries  showing  a 
parallel  development  of  art-and-science  instruction ; but 
I am  not  aware  of  them,  if  they  exist.  It  is  sufficient 
for  us  to  know,  that  in  a country  peopled  by  the  same 
race  as  America,  speaking  the  same  language,  and  a 
manufacturing  nation  as  we  are,  this  wonderful  progress 
has  actually  occurred  in  the  space  of  four  years ; that 
the  classes  in  all  subjects  are  nearly  doubling  year  by 
year : and  any  practical  educationist  will  see  at  a glance 
what  must  be  the  effect  of  such  advancement. 

If  it  be  asked,  how  has  this  been  brought  about,  I 


316 


ART  EDUCATION. 


shall  say,  by  a little  practical  wisdom  on  the  part  of  the 
Government,  learned  by  its  art  experience.  The  first 
care  was  to  offer  great  inducements  to  teachers  to  study 
the  several  subjects,  and  become  certificated  bj*  passing 
examinations,  and  thus  qualified  to  teach  others.  They, 
in  their  turns,  were  employed  to  instruct  teachers’ 
classes  in  many  centres ; and,  as  a consequence,  thou- 
sands of  teachers,  competent  in  some  one  or  more  sub- 
jects, Avere  planted  broadcast  over  the  laud.  These  are 
not  special  teachers,  whose  profession  it  is  to  teach  a 
particular  branch  of  science,  but  the  regular  day-school 
teachers,  Avhose  evenings,  being  unoccupied,  are  most 
profitably  employed  in  imparting  secondary  or  technical 
instruction  to  artisans  and  others. 

I look  for  a similar  development  in  this  country  Avhen 
the  same  steps  are  taken  to  insure  it,  and  not  before. 
What  we  are  doing  is  right  as  far  as  it  goes;  but  how 
far  it  does  go,  in  comparison  with  what  is  beirfg  done  in 
Europe,  any  person  knowing  the  above  facts,  and  capa- 
ble of  thinking,  is  able  to  decide. 

What  England  is  doing  in  this  matter  of  industrial 
education  is  probably  greater  than  in  most  countries ; 
but  they  are  all  doing  much : and  in  proportion  to  what 
they  do  is  their  commercial  success  in  manufacturing 
industry. 

Nevertheless,  I believe,  that,  so  soon  as  this  countiy 
awakens  to  the  sense  of  her  deficiencies  in  this  subject, 
there  will  be  as  great  a rush  to  do  great  things  as  there 
has  been  tardiness  in  commencing  them ; for  the  ground 
will  be  fullyr  prepared,  and  the  demand  for  its  cultiva- 
tion general. 

With  regard  to  the  best  methods  or  systems  of  study 
in  art  or  science,  that  will  right  itself ; for  the  only  ones 
which  will  succeed  here  will  be  American.  Those 
whose  experience  is  Avorth  any  thing,  or  who  have 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


317 


watched  or  read  of  the  initiation  and  development  of 
great  movements,  know  that  you  cannot  fit  any  branch 
of  civilization  upon  a people  who  have  not  originated  it. 

The  genius  of  a country  impresses  itself  upon  those 
who  are  not  too  old  to  learn ; and,  when  they  are  too  old 
to  learn,  they  are  unfitted  to  teach  : and  this  spirit  will 
fit  the  work  to  the  men  or  the  men  to  the  work.  The 
only  sort  of  system  which  will  be  found  to  work  is  that 
which  we  make  as  we  go  on ; and,  if  the  right  sort  of 
workmen  are  employed,  they  will  not  be  in  any  difficulty 
about  plans  or  schemes,  which  will  develop  as  the  need 
comes.  For  a plan  of  education  is  not  like  the  erection 
of  a building,  which  has  to  be  settled  from  foundation 
to  roof  before  a stone  is  laid.  It  is  rather  like  the  culti- 
vation of  a new  farm,  whose  soil  has  to  be  tested  to  see 
what  it  will  best  grow,  — corn  or  roots  or  wheat ; and  it 
will  be  many  seasons  before  that  will  display  itself. 

It  may  have  occurred  to  some  that  my  notions  and 
illustrations  have  been  drawn  almost  entirely  from  ex- 
perience in  another  half  of  the  world,  which  is  different 
from  this  half,  comparatively  unknown  to  Americans, 
and  having  another  history  and  dissimilar  wants. 

To  those  I would  say,  that  I am  conscious  of  this, 
and  can  plead  in  extenuation  of  such  an  offence,  that  I 
have  regarded  my  task  as  a responsible  one,  however 
unimportant  it  may  be  considered  socially,  and  that,  in 
endeavoring  to  display  certain  principles  and  to  find 
some  light  to  guide  us  in  our  common  path,  my  position 
has  been  that  of  a witness  in  the  witness-box,  — not  to 
detail  hearsay  evidence,  but  his  own  experiences  ; not  to 
be  discursive  on  the  merits  of  the  case,  but  to  state  his 
own  share  in  the  transaction:  and,  in  doing  so,  how  could 
I,  who  have  spent  but  a few  months  in  this  country,  do 
other  than  “ speak  of  that  which  I know,  and  testify  of 
that  which  I have  seen,”  to  use  language  which  most 


318 


ART  EDUCATION. 


aptly  expresses  my  own  individual  case.  The  time  may 
come  when,  by  my  own  experience  and  the  progress  of 
art  education  here,  the  most  pertinent  facts  I refer  to 
and  the  most  illustrative  images  I portray  may  be 
American  in  every  detail ; until  that  time  arrives,  and 
considering  my  infancy  as  an  American  citizen,  I feel 
sure  my  readers  will  gently  excuse  Old-World  illustra- 
tions, and  believe  that  practical  evidence  is  worth  as 
much  as  any  other  evidence  I could  give. 

I shall  conclude  this  very  imperfect  treatment  of  my 
subject  by  again  quoting  from  the  thoughtful  language 
ot'  the  greatest  art  master  this  century  has  produced.  I 
would  wish  for  no  better  indication  that  the  tendency  of 
American  manufacture  was  in  the  right  direction,  than 
that  both  masters  and  students  could  approve  of  the  lofty 
ideal  set  forth  in  the  following  words.  Mr.  Ruskin  was 
addressing  an  audience  in  the  town  of  Bradford,  an 
important  Yorkshire  manufacturing  centre.  Speaking 
of  the  education  of  the  workmen,  and  the  character  of 
the  manufactures,  he  said, — 

“ I repeat,  that  I do  not  ask  you,  nor  wish  you,  to 
build  a new  Pisa  for  them.  We  don’t  want  either  the 
life  or  the  decorations  of  the  thirteenth  century  back 
again ; and  the  circumstances  with  which  you  must 
surround  your  workmen  are  those  simply  of  happy 
modern  English  life,  because  the  designs  you  have  now 
to  ask  for  from  your  workmen  are  such  as  will  make 
modern  English  life  beautiful.  All  that  gorgeousness 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  beautiful  as  it  sounds  in  description, 
noble  as  in  many  respects  it  was  in  reality,  had  never- 
theless, for  foundation  and  for  end,  nothing  but  the 
pride  of  life,  — the  pride  of  the  so-called  superior  classes ; 
a pride  which  supported  itself  by  violence  and  robbery, 
and  led,  in  the  end,  to  the  destruction  both  of  the  arts 
themselves  and  the  states  in  which  they  flourished. 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


319 


The  great  lesson  of  history  is,  that  all  the  fine  arts  hith- 
erto haying  been  supported  by  the  selfish  power  of  the 
noblesse , and  never  having  extended  their  range  to 
the  comfort  or  the  relief  of  the  mass  of  the  people, — the 
arts,  I say,  thus  practised  and  thus  matured,  have  only 
accelerated  the  ruin  of  the  states  they  adorned ; and  at 
the  moment  when,  in  any  kingdom,  you  point  to  the 
triumphs  of  its  greatest  artists,  you  point  also  to  the 
determined  hour  of  the  kingdom’s  decline.  The  names 
of  great  painters  are  like  passing  bells  : in  the  name  of 
Velasquez  you  hear  sounded  the  fall  of  Spain;  in  the 
name  of  Titian,  that  of  Venice  ; in  the  name  of  Leonardo, 
that  of  Milan ; in  the  name  of  Raphael,  that  of  Rome. 

“ And  there  is  profound  justice  in  this  : for  in  propor- 
tion to  the  nobleness  of  the  power  is  the  guilt  of  its  use 
for  purposes  vain  or  vile  ; and  hitherto  the  greater  the 
art,  the  more  surely  has  it  been  used,  and  used  solely, 
for  the  decoration  of  pride,*  or  the  provoking  of  sensu- 
ality. Another  course  lies  open  to  us.  We  may  aban- 
don the  hope  — or,  if  you  like  the  words  better,  we  may 
disdain  the  temptation  — of  the  pomp  and  grace  of  Italy 
in  her  youth.  For  us  there  can  be  no  more  the  throne 
of  marble,  for  us  no  more  the  vault  of  gold ; but  for  us 
there  is  the  loftier  and  lovelier  privilege  of  bringing  the 
power  and  charm  of  art  within  the  reach  of  the  humble 
and  the  poor:  and,  as  the  magnificence  of  past  ages 
failed  by  its  narrowness  and  its  pride,  ours  may  prevail 
and  continue  by  its  universality  and  its  lowliness. 

“ And  thus,  between  the  picture  of  too  laborious  Eng- 
land, which  we  imagined  as  future,  and  the  picture 
of  too  luxurious  Italy,  which  we  remember  in  the  past, 
there  may  exist  — there  will  exist  if  we  do  our  duty  — 
an  intermediate  condition,  neither  oppressed  by  labor 

* Whether  religious  or  profane  pride,  — chapel  or  banqueting-roorn,  — is  no 
matter. 


320 


ART  EDUCATION. 


nor  wasted  in  vanity,  — the  condition  of  a peaceful  and. 
thoug’htful  temperance  in  aims  and  acts  and  arts.  We 
are  about  to  enter  upon  a period  of  our  world’s  history 
in  which  domestic  life,  aided  by  the  arts  of  peace,  will 
slowly,  but  at  last  entirely,  supersede  public  life  and 
the  arts  of  war.  For  our  own  England,  she  will  not,  I 
believe,  be  blasted  throughout  with  furnaces,  nor  will 
she  be  encumbered  with  palaces.  I trust  she  will  keep 
her  green  fields,  her  cottages,  and  her  homes  of  middle 
life  ; but  these  ought  to  be,  and  I trust  will  be,  enriched 
with  a useful,  truthful,  substantial  form  of  art.  We 
want  now  no  more  feasts  of  the  gods,  nor  martjudoms  of 
saints : we  have  no  need  of  sensuality,  no  place  for  super- 
stition or  for  costly  insolence.  Let  us  have  learned 
and  faithful  historical  paintings,  touching  and  thought- 
ful representations  of  human  nature  in  dramatic  paint- 
ing, poetical  and  familiar  renderings  of  natural  objects 
and  of  landscape,  and  rational,  deeply-felt  realizations 
of  the  events  which  are  the  subjects  of  our  religious 
faith.  And  let  these  things  we  want,  as  far  as  possible, 
be  scattered  abroad,  and  made  accessible  to  all  men. 
So,  also,  in  manufacture : we  require  work  substantial 
rather  than  rich  in  make,  and  refined  rather  than 
splendid  in  design.  Your  stuffs  need  not  be  such  as 
would  catch  the  eye  of  a duchess ; but  they  should  be 
such  as  may  at  once  serve  the  need  and  refine  the 
taste  of  a cottager.  The  prevailing  error  in  English 
dress,  especially'  among  the  lower  orders,  is  a tendency 
to  flimsiness  and  gaudiness,  arising  mainly  from  the 
awkward  imitation  of  their  superiors.  It  should  be  one 
of  the  first  objects  of  all  manufacturers  to  produce  stuffs, 
not  only  beautiful  and  quaint  in  design,  but  also  adapted 
for  every-day  service,  and  decorous  in  humble  and 
secluded  life.  And  you  must  remember  always,  that 
your  business,  as  manufacturers,  is  to  form  the  market 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


321 


’ as  much  as  to  supply  it.  If,  in  short-sighted  and  reckless 
eagerness  for  wealth,  you  catch  at  every  humor  of  the 
populace  as  it  shapes  itself  into  momentary  demand  ; if 
in  jealous  rivalry  with  neighboring  States,  or  with  other 
producers,  you  try  to  attract  attention  by  singularities, 
novelties,  and  gaudinesses,  to  make  every  design  an  adver- 
tisement, and  pilfer  every  idea  of  a successful  neighbor’s, 
that  you  may  insidiously  imitate  it  or  pompously 
eclipse,  no  good  design  will  ever  be  possible  to  you. 
You  may  by  accident  snatch  the  market,  or  by  energy 
command  it ; you  may  obtain  the  confidence  of  the  pub- 
lic, and  cause  the  ruin  of  opponent  houses ; or  you  may, 
with  equal  justice  of  fortune,  be  ruined  by  them.  But, 
whatever  happens  to  you,  this  at  least  is  certain,  that 
the  whole  of  your  life  will  have  been  spent  in  corrupt- 
ing public  taste  and  encouraging  public  extravagance. 
Every  preference  you  have  won  by  gaudiness  must  have 
been  based  on  the  purchaser’s  vanity ; every  demand 
you  have  created  by  novelty  has  fostered  in  the  con- 
sumer a habit  of  discontent ; and,  when  you  retire  into 
inactive  life,  you  may,  as  a subject  of  consolation  for 
your  declining  years,  reflect,  that,  precisely  according  to 
the  extent  of  your  past  operations,  your  life  has  been 
successful  in  retarding  the  arts,  tarnishing  the  virtues, 
and  confusing  the  manners,  of  your  country. 

“ But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  you  resolve  from  the  first, 
that,  so  far  as  you  can  ascertain  or  discern  what  is  best, 
you  will  produce  what  is  best,  on  an  intelligent  consid- 
eration of  the  probable  tendencies  and  possible  tastes 
of  the  people  whom  you  supply,  you  may  literally 
become  more  influential  for  all  kinds  of  good  than  many 
lecturers  on  art  or  many  treatise-writers  on  morality. 
Considering  the  materials  dealt  with,  and  the  crude 
state  of  art  knowledge  at  the  time,  I do  not  know  that 
any  more  wide  or  effective  influence  in  public  taste  was 


322 


ART  EDUCATION. 


ever  exercised  than  that  of  the  Staffordshire  manufac- 
ture of  pottery  under  William  Wedgewood  ; and  it  only 
rests  with  the  manufacturer  in  every  other  business  to 
determine  whether  he  will,  in  like  manner,  make  his 
wares  educational  instruments  or  mere  drugs  of  the 
market. 

“ You  all  should  be,  in  a certain  sense,  authors : you 
must,  indeed,  first  catch  the  public  eye,  as  an  author 
must  the  public  ear ; but  once  gain  your  audience  or 
observance,  and  as  it  is  in  the  writer’s  power  thence- 
forward to  publish  what  will  educate  as  it  amuses,  so 
it  is  in  yours  to  publish  what  will  educate  as  it  adorns. 
Nor  is  this  surely  a subject  of  poor  ambition.  I hear  it 
said  continually  that  men  are  too  ambitious : alas  ! to 
me  it  seems  they  are  never  enough  ambitious.  How 
many  are  content  to  be  merely  the  thriving  merchants 
of  a state,  when  they  might  be  its  guides,  counsellors, 
and  rulers ; wielding  powers  of  subtle  but  gigantic  be- 
neficence in  restraining  its  follies,  while  they  supplied  its 
wants.  Let  such  duty,  such  ambition,  be  once  accepted 
in  their  fulness,  and  the  best  glory  of  European  art  and 
of  European  manufacture  may  yet  be  to  come.  The 
paintings  of  Raphael  and  of  Buonarotti  gave  force  to  the 
falsehoods  of  superstition,  and  majesty  to  the  imagina- 
tions of  sin ; but  the  arts  of  England  may  have  for  their 
task  to  inform  the  soul  with  truth,  and  touch  the  heart 
with  compassion.  The  steel  of  Toledo  and  the  silk  of 
Genoa  did  but  give  strength  to  oppression,  and  lustre  to 
pride  : let  it  be  for  the  furnace  and  for  the  loom  of  Eng- 
land, as  they  have  already  richly  earned,  still  more  abun- 
dantly to  bestow  comfort  on  the  indigent,  civilization  on 
the  rude,  and  to  dispense,  through  the  peaceful  homes 
of  nations,  the  grace  and  the  preciousness  of  simple 
adornment  and  useful  possession.” 


PROSPECT  AND  RETROSPECT. 


323 


I have  made  these  long  extracts  from  “ The  Two 
Paths”  because  the  counsel  given  is  as  applicable  here 
to-day  in  America  as  it  was  in  England  ten  years  ago, 
and  is  now ; because  it  expresses  precisely  my  own  feel- 
ing with  regard  to  the  quickest  way  of  arriving  at  a 
consistent  development  of  art  industry,  fitted  to  the 
circumstances  of  this  age  and  this  country.  Knowing 
from  a long  course  of  observation  how  important  an 
influence  the  author  has  had  upon  the  art  of  England 
by  such  utterly  noble  thoughts  and  language  as  that  I 
have  quoted,  I reproduce  them  as  likely  to  be  not  with- 
out similar  results  here. 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX  I. 


FLAT  EXAMPLES,  MODELS,  AND  BOOKS. 

The  want  of  examples  and  casts  for  art  study  which  have  been  examined 
and  approved  of  by  competent  authorities  in  art  has  long  been  felt  in 
America.  Possibly,  until  such  works  are  designed  or  reproduced  here,  we 
may  have  to  depend  upon  our  supplies  from  abroad.  The  following  lists 
may  therefore  be  of  service  to  such  as  have  to  provide  examples  for 
classes.  To  the  prices  given,  fifty  per  cent  must  be  added  for  package, 
freightage,  and  dues  ; but  works  of  art  for  the  purposes  of  public  instruc- 
tion enter  the  United  States  free  of  duty.  My  experience  is,  that  carriage 
by  steamer  is  preferablo  to  by  sailing  vessel  for  works  of  art,  and  that  all 
cases  used  for  packing  such  works  must  be  lined  with  tin  or  zinc.  If  only 
flat  copies  are  required,  without  models  or  vases,  thirty  per  cent  will  cover 
the  extra  cost  of  package,  etc. 

Agent  in  London,  S'ig.  D.  Brucciani,  40  Russell  Street,  Covent  Garden, 
London,  England. 

List  of  Examples,  Spc.,  approved  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  and  sup- 
plied to  National  and  other  Public  Schools,  Institutions,  fyc. 

Rotation  number. 

18-20  Letters  A.  O.  8.,  3s. 

33-45  Simpson’s  12  plates  of  Outlines  for  Blackboard,  on  canvas,  7s. 

Ditto  on  sheets,  3s. 

375-377  Richson’s  Elementary  Free-hand  Copies,  five  parts,  2s.  6 d. 

1710  Delarue’s  Free-hand  Outlines  of  Common  Things,  48  subjects,  5s. 

95-98  Familiar  Objects,  9d. 

COPIES  FOR  OUTLINE  DRAWING. 

2120  Delarue’s  Outlines  of  Animals,  Is. 

148-222  Dyce’s  Elementary  Outlines  of  Ornament,  50  selected  plates,  unmounted, 
5s. 

223-234  Weitbreicht’s  Outlines  of  Ornament,  reproduced  by  Herman,  12  plates, 
one  set,  unmounted,  2s. 

235-254  Morghen’s  Outlines  of  the  Human  Figure,  reproduced  by  Herman,  one 
set,  20  plates,  unmounted,  3s.  4 cl. 

255-258  One  set  of  4 plates.  Outlines  of  Tarsia,  from  Gruner,  unmounted  (size, 
17J  in.  x 22  in.),  id. 

259-202  AlbertolH’s  Foliage,  one  set  of  4 plates,  unmounted  (size  20  in.  x 8 in.),  ad. 

1272  Wallis’s  Drawing-Book,  unmounted,  3s.  6 d. 

1701-1708  Outline  Drawings  of  Flowers,  8 sheets,  unmounted,  8 d. 

1271  Outline  of  Trajan  Frieze,  mounted,  Is. 

Elementary  Drawing-Books.  For  the  use  of  children  from  four  years  old 
and  upwards,  in  schools  and  families,  4 to  7 books,  at  8 d.  each,  London, 
Chapman  & Hall,  1864.  The  set,  4s.  6 d. 


327 


328 


APPENDIX  I. 


COPIES  FOR  SHADED  DRAWING. 

Selections  from  the  Course  of  Design,  by  Ch.  Bargue  (French),  20  sheets, 
each  2«. 

2160  Renaissance  Rosette,  unmounted,  3(7. 

2226  Shaded  Ornament,  unmounted,  4(7. 

2110  Ornament  from  a Greek  Frieze,  unmounted,  3(7. 

Four  plates  of  Flowers,  shaded:  — 

2106  Virginian  Creeper,  unmounted,  9(7. 

2107  White  Grapes,  unmounted,  9(7. 

2108  Burdock,  unmounted,  4(7. 

2109  Poppy,  unmounted,  4(7. 

2235  Column  from  the  Vatican,  unmounted,  Is. 

2241  Early  Engll-h  Capital,  unmounted,  4(7. 

2247  Gothic  Patera,  unmounted,  4(7. 

2210  Renaissance  Scroll,  Tomb  in  S.  XI.  Del  Frari.  Venice,  unmounted,  Is.  4(7. 

2248  Moulding  of  Sculptured  Foliage,  decorated,  7(7. 

ARCHITECTURAL  AND  MACHINE  DRAWING. 

Selected  Examples  of  Machines,  of  Iron  and  Woodwork  (French),  by 
Stanislas  Petit,  00  sheets,  at  13s.  per  dozen,  £3.  5s. 

Bradley’s  Practical  Geometry,  Perspective  and  Projection,  2 vols.  each,  16s. 
Architectural  Studies,  by  I.  B.  Tripon,  20  plates.  £1.  13s.  4(7. 

Glentiy’s  Examples  of  Building  Construction.  12  largo  plates,  £1.  Is. 
969-1030  Engineer  and  Machinist's  Drawing-Book,  71  plates,  published,  sewed  In 
numbers,  unmounted,  at  2<.  per  number,  £1. 12s. 

Lnxton’s  Examples  of  Building  Construction  in  Divisions  (1st  division, 
containing  10  imp.  plates),  10s. 

Ditto  (2d  division,  containing  10  imp.  plates),  10s. 

COLORED  EXAMPLES. 

285  A Small  Diagram  of  Color,  unmounted.  9(7. 

2>7  Redgrave’s  Manual  and  Catechism  on  Color  (3d  edition),  36  pages,  9<7. 
618-OlSa  Two  Plates  of  Elementary  Design,  Is. 

301  Petunia,  unmounted,  2s.  9(7. 

300  Pelargonium,  unmounted,  2s.  9(7. 

1619  Group  of  Camellias,  12s. 

302  Nasturtium,  unmounted.  2s.  9(7. 

305  Altbtea  Frutex,  unmounted,  2s.  0(7. 

Pync’s  Landscapes  in  Chromo- Lithography  (six),  each  mounted,  7s.  6(7. 
Cotmnn’s  Pencil  Landscapes  (nine),  set,  mounted,  15s. 

Cotmau’s  Sepia  Landscapes  (five),  set,  mounted,  £1. 

SOLID  MODELS,  ETC. 

The  models,  or  part  of  them,  should  be  included  In  the  outfit  of  a night 
class  for  elementary  drawing. 

3 Bigg’s  large  Compasses,  with  Chalk-holder,  4s.  3<7. 

• 6-7-8  Slip,  two  set  squares  and  T square,  5s. 

16  Elliott's  Case  of  Instruments,  containing  6-inch  compasses,  with  pen  and 
pencil  leg.  Os.  9(7. 

1694  Elliott’s  Prize  Instrumental  Case,  with  6-inch  compasses,  pen  and  pencil 
leg.  two  small  Compasses,  pen  and  scale,  18s. 

1676  Elliott’s  6-inch  Compasses,  with  shifting  pen  and  point,  4s. 

317  A Box  of  Models  for  Parochial  Schools,  £1.  4s. 

318  A Stand  with  a Universal  Joint,  to  show  the  solid  models,  &c.,  £1.  10s. 
319-328  One  Wire  Quadrangle,  with  a circle  and  cross  within  it,  and  one  straight 

wiie,  one  solid  cube,  one  skeleton  wire  cube,  one  sphere,  one  cone,  one 
cylinder,  one  hexagonal  prism,  £2.  2s. 

1612  Skeleton  Cnbe  in  Wood.  3<.  6(7. 

2000-2006  Mr.  Binn’s  Models  for  Illustrating  the  Elementary  Principles  of  Ortho- 
graphic Projection  as  applied  to  Mechanical  Drawing,  in  box,  £1.  10s. 
Three  Objects  of  Form  in  Pottery  (Minton’s) : — 

332  Indian  Jar,  5s. 

333  Celadon  Jar,  3s.  9(7. 

334  Bottle,  6s. 

236-338 

& 1541  Five  Selected  Vases  in  Majolica  Ware  (Minton’s),  each  8s.  6(7., — £1.  2s.  6d. 
341-343  Three  Selected  Vases  in  Earthenware  ( Wedgewood’s),  4s.  9(7.,  4s.  9(7.,  and 
6s. 

Imperial  Deal  Frames,  glazed,  without  sunk  rings,  10s. 


APPENDIX  I. 


829 


BOOKS,  ETC. 

359  Robinson’s  Manual  for  teaching  Elementary  Drawing,  7d. 

99  Burchett’s  Practical  Geometry,  5s. 

100  Burchett’s  Perspective,  7s. 

360  Burchett’s  Definitions  of  Geometry,  5 d. 

362  Art  and  Science  Directories,  each  6 d. 

2023  Davidson’s  Elementary  Drawing,  8vo  cloth,  3s. 

365  Redgrave  on  the  Necessity  of  Principles  in  Teaching  Design,  6 d. 

287  Redgrave’s  Manual  and  Catechism  on  Color,  9 d. 

366  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  Is. 

367-371  Five  Placards  of  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  10 d. 

Anatomical  Method  of  Drawing  the  Figure,  by  Ad.  Yvon,  18s. 

316  Text  to  Dyce’s  Drawing-Book,  (id. 

1270  Wornum’s  Catalogue  of  Casts,  stitched,  Is 
127 0a  “ “ “ bound  in  cloth,  Is.  6 d. 

2234  Dicksee’s  Perspective,  5s. 

378  Lineal  Drawing  Copies  for  the  Earliest  Instruction,  comprising  upwards  of 

200  subjects,  on  24  sheets,  mounted  on  thick  pasteboard,  in  a portfolio, 
5s.  6 d. 

379  Easy  Drawing  Copies  for  Beginners,  6s.  6 d. 

380  Drawing  for  Young  Children.  3s.  6 d. 

Examples  for  First  Practice  in  Free-hand  Outline  Drawing,  by  Walter 
Smith,  2s. 

Smith’s  Elements  of  Geometry,  First  Grade,  Is. 

Smith’s  Elements  of  Practical  Geometry,  Second  Grade,  Is.  6 d. 

First  Grade  Practical  Geometry,  by  John  Kennedy,  New  Edition,  6 d. 
First  Grade  Free-hand  Drawing  Book,  by  John  Kennedy,  Is.  6 d. 
Gregory’s  First  Grade  Free-hand  Outline  Drawing,  enlarged  for  the 
blackboard,  2s.  6 d. 

Sciography,  or  Radial  Projection  of  Shadows,  by  R.  C.  Puckett,  Ph.  D.,  5s. 
Drawing-Book  for  Beginners,  by  P.  II.  Delamotte,  F.S.A.,  2s.  6 d. 


The  following  is  a list  of  French  examples,  flat  copies,  chosen  for  the 
City  of  Boston  Normal  Art  School,  with  prices  marked.  The  copies  were 
unmounted.  All  of  them  came  from  Paris,  but  may  be  ordered  in  England 
from  Sig.  D.  Brucciani,  40  Bussell  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  who 
will  procure  them,  and  forward  them  to  America  : — 


3 books  Free-hand  Outline  Drawing  (at  Is.  4d.),4s. 

2 sets,  81  plates,  small  Ornaments  (2s.  6 cl.  doz.),  £1. 13s.  9 d. 

1 set,  100  “ petits  Materiaux  (2s.Cd.),  £1.  10 d. 

1 “ 100  “ small  Architectural,  8s.  id. 

1 “ 100  “ “ Mechanical,  8s.  id. 

1 “ 36  “ “ Blery’s  Flowers  (24d.),  7s.  6d. 

1 “ 100  “ “ Bucollet’s  Models  (2’-d.),  £1.  lOd. 

4 lessons  in  Sepia  (9 d.),  3s. 

2 doz.  small  Sepia  Copies  (9 d.),  18s. 

1 set,  40  plates,  Habitations,  Cosmo  (12d.),  £2. 

1 “ 50  “ Tripon’s  Mechanical  (9 d.),  £1.  17s.  6 d. 

1 “ 50  “ “ Architectural  (9 d.),  £1. 17s.  fid. 

1 “ 67  “ Petits  Mechanical (9d.),  £2. 10s.  3d. 

1 “ 9 “ Tripon’s  New  Architectuial  (9d.),  6s.  9d. 

1 First  Year  Tripon’s  Geometrical,  15s. 

1 Second  “ “ “ £1. 

1 set,  40  plates,  Numa’s  Ornaments  (4 Id.),  15 s. 

1 “ 72  “ large,  Mechanical  Outline  (2d.),  12s. 

1 “ 50  “ large,  Architectural  (2d  ),  8s.  4d. 

1 “ 9 “ Animals’  Heads  (4 jd.).  3s.  4£d. 

1 “ 95  “ large,  Lalaisse  Animals  (4s/6d.),  £1. 15s.  7^d. 

1 “ 24  “ “ Blery’s  Plants  (4jd.),  9s. 

1 “ 38  “ Models  from  Nature  Mid.),  14s.  3d. 

1 “ 84  “ Julien’s  Preparatory  Course  (9d.),  £3.  3s. 

2 “ 24  “ “ Ornaments  (7 Id.),  £1. 10s. 

1 “ 48  “ Rosa  Bonheur’s  Small  Studies  (7jd.),  £1. 10s. 

60  Calame’s  large  Landscapes  (9d.),  £1.  17s.  6d. 

30  Plantar’s  Ornaments  (9d.),  £1.  2s.  6d. 

17  Rosa  Bonheur’s  Large  Studies  (2s.),  £1.  14s. 

8 Photographs  from  the  Antique  (4s.),  £1. 12s. 

Lined  Packing  Case,  12s. 


330 


APPENDIX  II. 


APPENDIX  II. 


CASTS  OF  FIGURE,  ORNAMENT,  AND  FROM  NATURE, 

The  lists  here  given  may  be  trusted  to  contain  only  such  works  as  are 
of  a high  character,  according  to  their  several  subjects.  Those  on  Sig. 
Brucciani’s  list,  as  approved  by  the  art  referees  of  the  Science  and  Art 
Department,  England,  are  in  use  in  the  schools  of  art  and  drawing- 
classes  there.  Casts  should  be  ordered  painted,  if  from  accredited 
agents  of  artistic  societies,  or  the  government  of  the  country  from  which 
they  are  obtained ; the  cost  in  England  being  fifteen  per  cent  additional. 
In  calculating  expenditure  on  casts,  fifty  per  cent  must  be  added  for 
package,  freight,  and  incidental  expenses.  Casts  for  public  instruction 
are  admitted  into  America  duty  free. 


I. 

List  of  Casts,  with  Prices,  approved  by  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art  of 
the  English  Government,  for  the  Use  of  the  National  Schools  of  Art.  Sig.  D. 
Brucciani,  40  Russell  Street,  Covenl  Garden,  London,  England,  Agent. 


CASTS  OF  HISTORICAL  ORNAMENT. 

GREEK. 

English  official  numbers. 

347  Section  of  Frieze,  from  the  Erectheium,  Athens,  6s. 

495  Stele  Top,  from  the  British  Museum,  4s. 

492a  Enriched  Moulding  (Echinus,  from  the  Erectheium),  58. 

1634  Lysicrates  Scroll  (Athens),  4s. 

495a  Stele  top,  from  British  Museum,  4s. 

ROMAN. 

34S  Small  Acanthus  Scroll.  6s.  6 d. 

344  Rosette,  from  the  Capitol,  Rome,  4s. 

345  Another  “ “ “ 4s. 

346  Rosette,  from  the  Cloisters  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  38. 

474  Florentine  Panel,  with  Swan,  £1.  5s. 

1631  Nest  of  Scroll  of  Pilaster,  from  Villa  Medici,  15s. 

471  Large  Scroll,  from  Trajan  Forum.  £4. 

490  Small  Acanthus  Leaf,  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  6s. 

494a  Small  Rosette,  from  the  Tomb  of  the  Scipios,  Is.  6 d. 

494b  Another  “ “ “ “ Is.  6 d. 

472  Large  Frieze.  Trajan  Forum.  £4. 

1630  Nest  of  the  Florentine  Scroll,  with  the  Swan,  10s.  6 d. 

473  Pilaster,  from  the  Villa  Medici,  Rome,  £3. 10s. 

1540  Centre  Rosette,  from  Trojan  Scroll,  7s.  6 d. 

491  A Griffin . 5s. 

492c  Leaf  Moulding.  Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  5s. 

492d  Enriched  Moulding,  from  the  Upper  Cornice  of  Pedestal  of  Trajan’s 
Pillar,  5s. 

493  A Rosette,  from  the  Capitol,  4s. 

494  A Rosette,  from  the  Antique,  4s. 


APPENDIX  II. 


331 


RENAISSANCE. 

English  official  numbers. 

349  Pomegranate  Portion  of  the  Frieze  of  the  Ghiberti  Gates,  Florence, 
1424-52,  6s.  6 cl. 

1542e  Pilaster,  from  Tomb  of  Louis  XII.,  5s. 

1543E  Another  “ “ “ “ 5s. 

476a  Another  “ “ “ “ 6s. 

476b  Another  “ “ “ “ 5s. 

483  Egg-Plant  and  Pomegranate,  Ghiberti  Gates,  15s. 

475  Pilaster,  from  Florence  (cinquecento),  formerly  called  from  “ Sta.  Maria 
del  Popolo,”  £1.  Is. 

489  Acanthus  Leaf,  from  St.  Eustache,  Paris,  4s. 

481  A portion  of  the  Architrave  of  the  Ghiberti  Gates,  with  Eagle,  15s. 

482  Another,  with  Squirrel,  15s. 

476c  Pilaster,  from  Louis  XII. ’s  Tomb,  5s. 

476D'  Another,  “ “ “ “ 5s. 

496  Diamond  Rosette,  Brescia,  3s. 

1645  Panel,  from  the  Martinengo  Tomb,  Brescia,  with  cinquecento  Arabesque 

and  Figures,  £1.  10s. 

1646  Panel,  from  Chateau  D’Anet,  with  Cartouche,  4s. 

1647  Pilaster,  from  Notre  Dame,  Louis  XV.,  10s. 

484a  Piece  of  Architrave  of  Ghiberti  Gates  (the  Pomegranate  portion),  5s. 

484b  Piece  of  Architrave  of  Ghiberti  Gates  (the  Egg-Plant  portion),  5s. 

484c  Piece  of  Architrave  of  Ghiberti  Gates  (the  Bird  portion),  5s. 

475a  Lower  portion  of  Florentine  Pilaster,  7s. 

475b  Middle  “ “ *•  7s. 

475c  Upper  “ “ “ 7s. 

1625  Panel,  with  cinquecento  Arabesque,  from  the  Martinengo  Tomb  at 
Brescia,  £1.  10s. 

477  Pilaster,  from  the  Madeleine  Gates,  12s. 


MODERN  RENAISSANCE. 

478  Pilaster,  from  the  Madeleine,  Paris  (from  the  Bronze  of  Triquetti,  0. 
1840),  12s. 

478a  A section  of  the  above,  8s. 

478a  Portion  of  Pilaster,  from  the  Madeleine,  3s. 

478b  Another  “ “ “ 3s. 

478c  Another  “ “ “ 3s. 

478d  Another  “ “ “ 3s. 


GOTHIC. 

487  Finial,  from  Lincoln,  3s.  M. 

488  Capital,  from  Temple  Church,  7s. 

1640  Capital,  from  Stone  Church,  Kent,  7s.  6 d. 

485  Moulding  Boss,  from  St.  Stephen’s,  Westminster,  4s. 
1639  Spandrel,  from  Stone  Church,  Kent,  £1. 

1641  Small  carved  Panel,  Tracery,  3s. 

1642  Another  “ “ “ 3s.  6 d. 

486  A Moulding  Boss,  from  St.  Stephen’s,  Westminster,  4s. 


BYZANTINE. 

1636  Piece  of  Architrave,  from  St.  Denis,  Paris,  10s, 
1635  Panel,  from  Bonn,  4s. 

1637  Iron  Scroll  Work,  Hinge,  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  12s. 

1638  Another  portion,  7s.  6cL 


SARACENIC. 

1643  An  Alhambra  Panel,  3s.  6 d. 

1644  Another  “ “ 3s.  6 cl. 


CASTS  OF  FRUIT,  ETC.,  FROM  NATURE. 

2111  A Group  of  Blackberries,  15s. 

2112  “ Apples,  7s.  6 d. 

2113  “ “ (different),  7s.  6 cl. 


332 


APPENDIX  II. 


English  official  numbers. 

2114  A Group  of  Pears,  7s.  6d. 

“ Plums,  Is.  6d. 

“ Vine  and  Leaf,  7s.  6 d.  # 

“ Vine  and  Leaves  (large),  £1,  18. 

A Bunch  of  Grapes,  7s.  6 U. 

Cast  of  Shaddock,  from  Nature,  Is. 


2115 

2110 

2117 

2118 
2121 
2122 
2128 

2124 

2125 
2120 

2127 

2128 
2123 

2130 

2131 

2132 
2433 

2134 

2135 
2101 
2182 

2103 

2104 

2105 
2100 

2107 

2108 
2189 

2170 

2171 

2172 
2170 

2177 

2178 

2179 

2180 
2181 
2182 

2183 

2184 

2185 
2180 
2187 
2183 

2189 

2190 

2191 

2192 

2193 

2194 

2195 
2190 
2197 
2193 

2199 

2200 
2201 


Grange, 
Melon, 

Pomegranate, 


Bottle  Gourd, 
Apple, 


Pear, 


6d. 

Oil. 

Is.  6d. 

9 d. 

Is. 

9 d. 

Is. 

6(1. 

6d. 

6 d. 

Is. 

(different).  Is. 
Is. 

Is. 


Pine,  “ 

Citron,  “ 

Giant  Gourd,  2s. 

A Group  of  Plums,  7s.  6 d. 

Lemon,  from  Nature,  6(1. 

Koek  Gourd,  Is. 

A Lily,  from  Nature,  7s.  6 <1. 

Funeral  Fern  of  New  Zealand,  2s. 

Vine  Branch,  from  Nature,  5s. 

Dock  Leaf,  from  Nature,  2s. 

Dock,  from  Nature.  2s. 

Bean  and  Leaf,  from  Nature,  2s.  6d. 

Study  of  a Stalk,  from  Wood,  Is.  6 el. 

“ “ “ Is.  6d. 

a Hand,  from  Nature  (with  compass),  2s.  6 d. 
Hand  resting,  from  Nature,  Is.  0 d. 

Hand,  drawing,  from  Nature.  2s. 

Open  Hand,  from  Nature,  Is.  6 d. 

Open  Hand  (male),  from  Nature,  2s. 

“ “ “ “ 2s.  • 

a Group  of  Female  Hands,  from  Nature,  3s. 

•*  “ “ 7s.  6 d. 

Female  Hand,  on  cushion,  from  Nature, 2s. 

“ “ from  Nature.  Is.  6(1. 

“ “ with  bracelet,  from  Nature,  Is.  6 d. 

Male  Hand,  from  Nature,  Is.  6 d. 

“ ••  is.  6d. 

“ throwing,  from  Nature,  Is.  6d. 

“ on  stone.  “ Is.  6d. 

“ with  stick,  “ Is.  6(1. 

a Clenched  Male  Hand.  “ Is.  6 d. 

Hand  with  Scroll,  on  stand,  from  Nature,  3s.  6 d. 
Child’s  Hand,  from  Nature,  Is. 

Is. 

“ “ Is. 

“ with  stick,  from  Nature,  Is. 

n Group  of  Four  Hands,  “ 5s. 

a Pair  of  Feet,  from  Nature.  3s. 

large  Ears,  from  Nature,  2s.  6 <7. 

“ small  •*  *•  Is.  6 d. 


1193  A Group  of  Arbutus  and  Foliage,  7s.  6 d. 

1199  “ the  White-Lily,  from  Nature,  12s. 

2100  “ Apples  (bunch),  “ 7s.  6 d. 

2101  “ the  Water-Lily,  “ 7s.  fid. 

2102  “ Sunflower  and  Foliage,  from  Nature,  10s.  6d. 

2103  “ Wheat,  from  Nature,  7s.  6 d. 

2104  “ Lemon  and  Foliage,  from  Nature,  3s.  6d. 

2105  “ Orange,  from  Nature,  3s  6 d. 

2106  “ the  Passion  Flower  and  Foliage,  3s.  6d. 

2107  “ Vine.  Foliage,  and  Lizard,  from  Marble,  7s.  6d. 

2103  A Thistle  Leaf,  front  view,  5s.  , 

2109  “ “ back  “ 5s. 

2110  A Small  Group  of  Apples  and  Foliage  (Nature),  3s.  6 d. 


APPENDIX  II. 


333 


English  official  numbers. 

2241  A Hand  bearing  Orange,  from  Nature,  2s.  6 d. 

2242  “ “ Apple,  “ 2s.  6 cl. 

2243  A Female  Hand,  on  slab,  “ 2s. 

2214  A Fair  of  Female  Clasped  Hands,  from  Nature,  3.s.  6 d. 

2215  “ “ Crossed  “ “ 3s.  6 d. 

2246  A Female  open  Hand,  from  Nature,  2s.  6 d. 

2247  A Male  Hand  holding  Painter’s  Brush,  from  Nature,  3s.  6c?. 


CASTS  OF  THE  FIGURE. 


1617  Bust  of  Diana  robing,  10s.  6 d. 

453  Bust  of  the  Young  Augustus,  6s. 

452  Anatomical  Figure  by  Houdon,  £5.  10s. 

1554  Discobolus  of  Naucydes,  Naples.  £5. 

455  Torso  of  Venus,  British  Museum,  8s. 

459  Bronze  Hercules,  “ “ 10s, 

457  Bust  of  Diomede,  “ “ 10s. 

463  Bust  of  Clytie,  “ “ 10s. 

498  Dancing  Girl,  with  wreath,  14s. 

497a  Portion  of  Panatheuaic  Frieze,  from  the  Parthenon,  18®, 
464c  Hand,  with  scroll  (antique), 2s. 

461D  “ with  stick,  Is.  6 cl. 

464e  “ Female,  from  Nature,  Is. 

464f  ‘1  Anatomical,  Is. 

4640  Foot  of  the  Laocoon  (right).  Is.  6c?. 

464t  “ of  the  Venus  de  Medici  (right  and  left),  2s. 

464k  “ from  the  Antique  (male),  Is.  6c?. 

464L  “ Anatomical,  Is.  6 d. 

462  Mask,  Child  of  Niobe,  3s. 

462a  Another,  3s. 

453  Discobolus  of  Myron,  British  Museum,  £5. 

1614  Fighting  Gladiator,  Louvre,  £5. 

1613  Venus  de  Medici,  Florence,  £4. 

1615  Bust  of  Apollo,  15s. 

1616  “ Venus  of  Milo,  Louvre,  15s. 

461  Mask  of  Moses,  by  Michael  Angelo,  5s. 

464  Foot  of  Farnese  Hercules,  5s. 

1626  An  Anatomical  Arm,  3s.  6c?. 

1627  “ Leg,  3s.  6 cl. 

1628  Cast  of  Leg,  from  Nature,  5s. 

1629  an  Arm,  “ 4s. 

4643  Hand  of  St.  Peter,  2s.  6c?. 

463  Mask  of  a Child  (Nature),  2s.  6c?. 

463a  Another  *■  “ 2s.  6c?. 


454 

460 

2202 

2203 

2204 

2205 

2206 

2207 

2208 

2209 

2210 
2211 
2212 

2213 

2214 

2215 

2216 

2217 

2218 
2219 


Statue  of  Dancing  Fawn,  from  Florence,  £3. 10s, 
Statuette  of  Apollo,  British  Museum,  12s. 

Cast  of  an  Anatomical  Foot,  2s.  6 cl. 

Mask  of  Juno,  3s.  6c?. 

Cast  of  Mask  of  Madonna  (M  Angelo),  3s.  0c?. 
Nose  and  Mouth  of  HSsculapius,  Is. 

“ Caracalla,  Is. 

“ Adonis,  Is. 

“ Antinous,  9c?. 

“ Venus  d’ Arles,  9c?. 

“ Lucius  Verus,  9c?. 

“ Hadrian,  Is. 

“ Juno,  9c?. 

Eye  and  Nose  of  Laocoon,  9c?. 

9c?. 

“ Bacchante,  9c?. 

“ “ Is. 

“ Jupiter,  Is. 

“ Is. 

“ Hadrian,  Is. 


2248  Section  of  Face  of  David  (left  eye),  M.  Angelo,  2s.  6c?. 

2249  Another  “ “ (right  eye),  “ 2s.  6c?. 


2250  “ “ “ (mouth;,  “ 2s.  6c?. 

2251  “ “ “ (nose),  “ 2s.  6c?. 


334 


APPENDIX  II. 


CASTS. 

English  official  numbers. 

470abc  Three  Anatomical  Figures  of  Animals,  £1. 1*. 
465  Horse’s  Leg,  from  Nature,  4s.  6 d. 

465a  Another,  4s.  M. 

467  Head  of  a Lion,  from  Nature,  10s. 

468  “ Lioness,  7s. 

469  “ Goat.  3s.  6d. 

460  Greyhound’s  Leg,  from  Nature,  2s.  6tf. 

466a  Another,  2s.  0 cl. 

1618  A Horse,  6s. 

1619  A Cow,  5s. 

1620  A Dog.  3s.  6 d. 

1621  A Stag,  5s. 

1622  A Lion,  3s.  6 d. 

1623  A Goat,  os.  


II. 


REPRODUCTIONS  FROM  ANCIENT  MARBLES,  BRONZES,  ETC.,  IN  THB 
BRITISH  MUSEUM. 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURES. 


STATUTES. 

No. 

14  Amenophis  HI.,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Memnon  [XVIH.  Dy- 
nasty], Thebes,  £10. 

48  Banofre.  a Scribe,  dedicated  to  Osi- 
ris [XVIII.  Dynast}'],  Thebes, 
£1.  12s. 

68  An  Officer  (upper part  of),  10s. 

An  Egyptian  Monarch  (upper  part 


No. 

of).  Presented  bv  Her  Majestv, 
1854,  12s. 

462  Amen-em-ha,  a Functionary  [XII. 
Dynasty].  10s. 

70c  Bctraes.  High  Functionary,  10 s. 
Upper  part  of  a Statue  of  an  Officer 
of  Rank,  inscribed  with  the  name 
Psammeticbus  I.  [XXVI.  Dy- 
nasty], 3s. 


APPENDIX  II. 


335 


BUSTS. 

No. 

41  Head  of  Pasht  (part  of  figure),  God- 
dess of  fire,  5s. 

16  Amenophis  111.,  £2.  2s. 

26  Seti  Menephtah  II.,  12s. 

88  Head  of  Pasht  (Bubastis),  with  the 
name  of  Amenophis  III.  (Mem- 
non)  [XV11I.  Dynasty],  Karnak, 
5s. 

1 Hi  ad  of  a Lion  [reign  of  Ameno- 
phis III  ].  12s. 

[97]  Head  of  a Sphinx  [Roman  period], 
15s.  tf 

17  Head  from  a Sarcophagus  of  Se 

haksi,  Priest  of  Ptah  [uncertain 
period],  £l.  10s. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

17  Lid  of  Sarcophagus  of  Sebaksi, 
Priest  of  Ptah  [uncertain  period], 
£2.  10s. 


No. 

523  East  side  of  Obelisk  (facing  en- 
trance), erected  by  Nekhtherhebi 
before  the  Temple  ol  Thoth 
[XXX.  Dynasty],  Cairo,  £t.  10s. 

523  One  other  (south  side).  £1.  los. 

10  Part  of  Sarcophagus,  captured  in 
Egypt  by  the  British . 1801.  Pre- 
sented by  King  George  III.,  £3. 

22  Intercolumnar  Slab  from  a Temple, 
with  inscription  and  figure  of  Nec- 
tanebo  [XXX.  Dynasty],  Alexan- 
dria, 18s. 

24  Rosetta  Stone  Inscription  in  honor 
of  Ptolemy  V , in  Hieroglyphic, 
Enchorial,  and  Greek  characters. 
Rosetta  [Ptolemaic  period],  6s. 

6*  Basin,  16s. 

Seti-Menephtah  I.  (upper  part  of), 
10s. 

Amen-ra  (upper  part  of),  10$. 


ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURES. 


No. 

1 Four-winged  Figure  with  Mace,  £5. 

2 King  and  Winged  Figures  with 

Mystic  < )fferings,  beside  a Sacred 
Tree.  £9. 

3a  King  hunting  the  Bull,  £2.  3s. 

3b  Return  from  the  Bull  Hunt.  £2.  3s. 
4a  King  hunting  the  Lion.  £2  3s. 

4b  Return  from  the  Lion  Hunt,  £2.  3s. 
5a  King  besieging  a City,  £2.  31s 
5b  Sardanapalus  receiving  Prisoners 
and  Spoil  £2  3s. 

6b  The  same,  £2  3s. 

6a  Fugitives  swimming  to  a Fortress, 
£2.  3s. 

7a  King  and  his  Army  in  Battle  with 
an  Enemy,  £2  3s. 

8a  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

9a  The  same,  £2  3s. 

10a  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

7b  Sardanapalus  I.  and  his  Army 
crossing  a River,  £2.  3s. 


No. 

8b  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

9b  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

10b  ( ’ -pitulation  of  a City,  and  Recep- 
tion of  Prisoners  by  Sardanapalus 
I.,  £2.  3s. 

11 B The  same,  £2.  3s. 

11a  Triumphal  Return  of  King  from 
Battle  to  the  Camp.  £2'.  3s. 

12a  The  6ame,  £2  3s. 

13a  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

13b  Siege  of  a City  by  Sardanapalus  I., 
£2.  3s. 

14b  The  same,  £2  3s. 

15b  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

14a  King  in  Battle,  before  a Besieged 
City,  £2.  3s. 

I 15a  The  same,  £2.  3s. 

16b  Horsemen  flying  before  the  Assy- 
rians, £2.  3s.  w 

17  Winged  Figure,  with  Stag  and 
Branch  of  Flowers,  £4.  10s. 


336 


APPENDIX  II. 


No. 

18  Winded  Figure,  with  Ibex  and  Ear 

of  Corn.  £4.  10s. 

19  Foreigners  wringing  Tribute,  £S. 

20  Sardanapalns  £ ■>  os. 

21  Sard  mapalus  1.  enthroned  between 

Attendants  and  Winged  Figures 
witn  Mystic  Offerings,  £7. 

22  The  same,  £7. 

28  The  same,  £7. 

24  Sardanapalns  I.  and  Winged  Figure 

with  offerings,  £7. 

25  Winged  Figure  with  Offerings,  and 

Kojal  Attendant,  £7. 

26  Sardanapalns  I.  and  Attendant,  £7. 

32  Priest  offering  Flowers,  £2.  10s. 

33  Eagle-headed  Deity  with  Offerings, 

£6. 

34  Eagle-headed  Deity  with  Offerings, 

£2.  las. 

35  Four  winged  Female  offering  Neck- 

lace. £5. 

36  Lion  Hunt,  £1.  6s 

37a  Winged  Figures  kneeling  beside  a 
Sacred  Tree.  £2  3s. 

33  Sardanapalns  l.  between  Eagle- 
headed Deities  with  Mystic  Offer-  [ 
logs,  beside  a Sacred  Tree,  £7. 

40  The  same,  £7. 

41  Winged  Figure  with  Offerings,  £5.  I 

5s. 

riuraan-headed  winged  Lion,  £15. 
Small  hum  m-headed  Hull,  £.5.  3s. 
Slab  with  Flacks,  £2.  3s. 

Ditto.  £2  3s. 

Horsemen  pursuing  Enemy,  £2.  3s. 
Female  with  Cumcts.  £2.  3s. 
Evacuation  of  a City  (upper  half), 
£1.  14  s 

Triumphal  Procession  (lower  half), 
£2.  10s. 

Winged  Figure,  £1. 

Ditto,  £1. 

Ditto,  £1. 

Ditto,  £1. 

Eunuch’s  Head,  12s. 

KONYUNIK  COLLECTION. — BASS-RELIEFS. 

39  Wounded  Lioness.  From  slab  of 
Sardanapal  s lit.  Hunting  Lions 
[Chamber  C 20-27].  7s.  6(1 . 

78  Man-headed  Lion  From  slab  of 
Mythological  or  S icerdotal  Fig- 
ures [Chamber  I',  b.  2],  las. 

107  Two  Horses  and  two  Lions,  one 

Rider.  From  slab.  Hunting  Lions 
and  Disposing  of  their  Carcasses 
[Chamber  3 14-1].  15s. 

108  Two  Horses  and  Male  and  Female. 

From  slab.  Hunting  Lions  and  Dis- 
posing of  their  Carcasses  | Cham- 
ber S.  14-11] , 15s. 

108  Five  Horses,  three  Riders. — one 
leading.  From  slab,  Hunting 
Lions  and  Disposing  of  their  Car-  | 
casses  [Chamber  S.  14-11],  £1.  10s.  I 


No. 

118  Sardanapalns  III.  at  an  Altar,  pour- 

ing a Libation  over.  15s. 

119  Dead  Lions.  15s. 

121  Sardanapulus  III.  and  his  Queen 
Feasting  in  a Garden.  £1.  Is. 

124a  Musicians  and  Attendants,  7s.  6<f. 
124b  Attendants,  7s.  6(1. 

124c  Wild  Boar  in  li<  eds,  7s.  6 d. 

56  Sardanapalus  III.  receiving  Prison- 

ers and  Spoil,  £5.  5s. 

57  A portion  of  the  Pavement  [Cham- 

ber I.  C.],  about  four  feet,  £2.  2s. 
» 

GREAT  MOUND. 

Obelisk  set  up  by  Shalmaneser, 
King  of  Assyria  [about  B.C.  850], 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

1 Lion  Weight,  7s. 

3 " " 4s. 

4 " u 4s. 

9 “ 4s. 

13  “ “ 4s. 

Stone  Duck,  5s. 

SCULPTURES  AND  INSCRIPTIONS  FROM 
PERSEPOLIS. 

84  8s. 

85  8s. 

86  7s. 

88  5s. 

89  -2s.  6(1. 

90  7s.  6 rl. 

91  7s.  6 (l. 

92  7s.  6(1. 

INSCRIPTIONS  FROM  HADJI  ABAD . 
Six  pieces,  £2.  2s. 

Stone  containing  Inscription  of  Ad- 
don, King  of  Assyria.  Presented 
by  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  IC.G., 

1860,  2s. 

Stone  with  Cuneiform  Characters, 

3s. 

ARABIC  MONUMENTS. 

Arabic  Inscription  on  Tombstone, 
£1 . 5s. 

BABYLONIAN. 

Stone,  containing  the  record  of  the 
sale  of  a field,  in  the  reign  of  Mero- 
dach-Adan-Aktii.  King  of  Babylon 
[about  1120  B C |.  7s.  6rf. 

Stone  with  the  figure  of  a king  in 
relief,  and  the  record  of  the  sale 
of  a field  in  the  reign  of  Mero- 
dach-Adan-Akhi.  King  of  Babylon 
[about  1120  B.C.],  7s.  6d. 


APPENDIX  II. 


837 


GREEK  SCULPTURES. 


EYCIAN  ROOM. 


No. 

1 Harpy  Tomb  (the  whole),  £9. 

1a  Youth  offering  a Cook  to  Male  seated 
Deity  (3  slabs),  £2  10s. 

1b  Demeter.  Persephone,  Three  Horse 
and  Cow  (4  slabs),  £2,  10s. 

lc  Male  seated  Figure  giving  a Helmet 
to  a Youthful  Warrior,  Harpies 
carrying  off  tile  Daughters  of  Pan- 
daros  (3  slabs),  £2.  10s. 

Id  Female  Figure  bringing  Offering  to 
Male  seated  Deity.  Harpies  carry- 
ing off  the  Daughters  of  Pandaros, 
£2.  10s. 

Cast  of  No.  17  Slab,  £1.  Is. 


is 

19s. 

<•* 

19 

“ 

19s. 

20 

“ 

13s. 

u 

27 

13s. 

34 

“ 

lls.  6(7. 

“ 

35 

£1.  15s.  6(7. 

36 

“ 

lis.  e a. 

37 

“ 

£2.  7s. 

38 

(( 

£1.  18s.  6<7. 

39 

“ 

£1.  14s. 

“ 

40 

£1.  lls. 

41 

“ 

£1.  8s.  6 d. 

(( 

42 

(( 

£2.  7s. 

43 

£1.  lls. 

“ 

44 

“ 

£1.  8s.  6 cl. 

of  No. 

, 45  Slab, 

£1.  14s. 

46  •• 

£2.  8s.  6 d. 

47  “ 

£1.  lls. 

48  “ 

£1.  8s.  6f7. 

49  “ 

£1.  13s. 

“ 

50  “ 

£1.  14s. 

51  “ 

£1.  7s  6 d. 

“ 

52  “ 

15s.  6(7. 

u 

53  “ 

£1.  13s. 

“ 

54  “ 

£1.  lls. 

“ 

55  “ 

£1.  12s. 

56  “ 

£1.  7s.  6(7. 

u 

57  “ 

£1.  9s. 

6i 

58  “ 

16s. 

59  “ 

£1. 

“ 

60  “ 

£1.  2s.  6(7. 

“ 

61  “ 

14s. 

“ 

62  “ 

£1.  9s.  6(7. 

“ 

63  “ 

£1.  9s.  6r7. 

u 

64  “ 

£1.  14s. 

65  “ 

£1.  6s. 

(( 

66  “ 

17s. 

67  “ 

£1.  2s.  6(7. 

“ 

69  “ 

16s. 

il 

70  “ 

15s. 

71  “ 

12s. 

142  “ 

£9.  7s. 

“ 

162  “ 

13s. 

163  “ 

10s. 

“ 

172  “ 

15s. 

ELGIN  SALOON. 


PARTHENON  PEDIMENTS. 

[The  first  Nos.  are  those  painted  black. 
The  Nos.  in  brackets  are  painted  red.] 
No. 

65  Hyperion  [91],  16s. 

Hyperion,  Right  Arm  of  (sepa- 
rate), 4s. 

66  Horses  of  Hyperion,  Heads  of  [92], 

£1.  10s. 

71  Theseus  [93],  £4.  10s. 

77  Ceres  and  Proserpine  [94],  £18. 

74  Iris  [95],  £5. 


No. 

72  Victory,  Torso  of  [96],  £1.  10s. 

One  of  the  Fates  [97],  £7. 

The  Two  other  Fates  [97],  £18. 

68  Horse’s  Head  [98] , 12s. 

70  Ilissus  [99],  £5. 

76  Cecrups,  Torso  of  [100],  £1.  10s. 

118  Minerva,  Fragment  of  the  Head  of 

[101] ,  3s. 

75  Minerva,  Fragment  of  the  Body  of 

[102] ,  12s. 

201  Minerva,  Fragment  of  the  Feet  of, 
and  Laurel  Tree  [356],  168. 


338 


APPENDIX  II. 


No. 

265 

64 

271 

69 

73 

156 


Minerva,  Fragment  of  the  [338],  7s. 
Neptune.  Torso  of  [103],  £l. 
Serpent,  Fragment  of  [104],  2s.  Gd. 
Victory  without  Wings,  Torso  of 
[105],  £1. 

Latonu,  Fragment  of  [106],  £1  5s. 
Fragment  of  a Female  Figure  [178], 

Head,  8s. 


104* 

105*  “ 7s. 

2C1  Fragment  of  an  Arm 
264 

267  “ a Leg 

274  ■'  an  Arm 

271*  “ 

269  “ a Figure 

244  “ “ 

256  44  14 

268  “ “ 

144 


Fragment  [314],  4s. 
lapital  of  a Co 
[112].  18s. 


. 4s. 

, 4s. 
,4s, 

, 4s. 

, 10s. 

. 5s. 

, 5s. 

, 4s. 

, 5s. 

. 7s.  6 (I. 


207  Capital  of  a Column,  one  quarter 


METOPES  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 


11  Metope 
o »• 

8 “ 

12  “ 

15  “ 

6 “ 

4 “ 

5 44 
13 


1 

3 

9 

14 
10 
A 66 
A 57 
A 64 
A 65 
143 

79 

294 


£1.  16  S. 

£2. 

£2. 

£1.  12s. 

£1.  15s. 

£1.  17s.  6<l. 
£1.  15s. 

£1.  15s. 


10 

, £1.  17s.  6(7. 

11 

, £2. 

12 

. £2. 

13 

, £1.  15s. 

14 

. £2. 

15 

. £2. 

16' 

6s. 

, £1. 15s. 

£1.  4s. 

“ £2. 

“ £2. 

Fragment,  Torso  of  Youth  [319], 

Fragment.  Torso  of  Female  [321], 

3s. 

Fragment.  Torso  of  Youth  [323], 

2s. 

Lion's  Head.  Spout.  Cast  from 
plaster  [392],  9s. 

Antelixal  or  Tile  Ornament  [391], 

10s. 


FRIEZE  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 

16  Three  slabs  [17],  £3. 

17  ■'  " [IS],  £3. 

18  “ “ [19],  £3. 

18*  Slab  of  Youth.  Cast  from  plaster 

[20],  8s. 

Slab  (cast  presented  by  Sir  F. 
Chantrey)  Old  Man  leaning  on 
Staff.  12s. 

19  Single  slab  [21],  £1. 

19*  Cast  from  plaster  [21].  10s. 

20  Single  slab  [22],  £1. 

A 100  Cast  from  plaster  [23],  £1. 18s. 

21  Single  slab  [24].  £ 1. 

22  44  [24],  7s.  6 d. 

A 25  Cast  from  plaster  [25],  £1. 


No. 


23 

Single  slab 

26 

, £1. 

35* 

• < 

'26 

, 10s. 

24 

ft 

'27' 

. £1. 

34 

(< 

'28' 

. £1. 

98 

It 

'29' 

, 3s. 

177* 

U 

, 4s. 

35 

it 

.30' 

. £1. 

35**  “ 

’31' 

, £1. 

37 

II 

32' 

. £1. 

5 Cast  from  plaster  [33],  £1. 
36  Single  slab  [34],  £1. 

178*  Fragment,  3s.  6 d. 

6 Cast  from  plaster  [35],  £1. 


38  Single  slab 

25 

26 
27 
23 

29 

30 

31 
38* 

32 

33 

21  Return  [46], 

39  


A 75 

Cast  from  plaster 

[48] 

, £L 

A 76 

t»  4< 

49 

, £1. 

A 77 

It  It 

'50 

, £1. 

A 78 

Is  U 

'51 

, £1. 

A 79 

(1  It 

52 

, £1. 

A 80 

II  14 

53 

, £1- 

A 81 

It  l! 

54 

, £1. 

A 82 

(t  ft 

'55 

■ £1. 

A 83 

it  ft 

'56 

, £1. 

A 84 

If  ft 

57 

. £1. 

A 85 

K It 

58 

, £1- 

A 86 

'59 

. £1. 

A 86* 

44  44  3s.  6d. 

A 87 

60' 

, £1- 

A 88 

[61] 

. 10s. 

A 13 

tl  If 

61 4 

],£1 

£1. 
. £1. 
, £1. 
. £1. 
. £1. 
, £L 
. £1. 
, £1. 
,£1. 
, £1. 
,£1. 


].£!■ 


40*  Single  slab  [62],  13s. 

A 14  Cast  from  plaster  [62*],  £1. 


, Is.  6 d. 
, £1. 
.£1. 

. £1. 

.£1. 

. £1. 

, £1. 
.£1. 

. £1. 
£1. 

£1. 

£1. 

£1. 

£1. 

13s. 

£1. 

£1. 

£1. 

£1. 

16s. 

, £1. 
£1. 
£1. 
£1. 

£1. 

3s. 

£1. 


44*  Fragment 

64 

38** 

'65 

46 

'66' 

50  •« 

67' 

47  44 

'68 

52  44 

'69' 

40  44 

70' 

42  44 

71' 

49  44 

72 

45 

75 

4S  44 

.74; 

43 

75 

44  44 

76; 

61 

77 

38***  u 

78' 

53  44 

54  44 

'80' 

56  44 

81' 

55  “ 

82" 

15*  44 

B3 

57  44 

s4' 

59  “ 

85' 

61 

86' 

60  “ 

'87' 

5S  “ 

88' 

96  “ 

62  “ 

[90 

!>t>  1-1  > {►  l»  > t >>>.>. 


APPENDIX  II. 


339 


No. 

62  Return  [90],  9s. 
145  4s. 


1 

[Cast  from  plaster],  £1. 

2 

U 

“ £1. 

3 

1C 

“ £1. 

4 

cc 

“ £1. 

7 

cc 

“ 16s. 

8 

cc 

“ 16s. 

9 

11 

“ 12s. 

10 

Cl 

“ 12  s. 

11 

Cl 

“ 12s. 

12 

“ 12s. 

ERECTHEUM. 

47  Ionic  Capital,  one-half  [125],  £1. 
16s. 

Ionic  Capital,  one-quarter,  9s. 
Pilaster  of  Capital.  £1. 18s. 

27  Part  of  Coffer  [117],  2s.  6 d. 

299  Part  of  Ceiling  [108],  8s 

Part  of  Jamb  of  Door  [115J,  3s. 
6 d. 

42  Caryatis,  from  Temple  of  Pandro- 
sos,  £6. 


TEMP-LE  OP  NIKE  APTEROS. 


258 
257 

259 

260 


Frieze,  single  slab  [158],  14s.  6 cl. 

“ “ “ [159],  14s.  6(7. 

“ “ “ [160],  17s. 

“ “ [161],  17s. 

Volute  of  Capital  [404] , 5s. 
Bass-relief  with  two  figures.  Cast 
from  plaster  [159*],  £1.  16s. 
Bass-relief  with  single  figure.  Cast 
from  plaster  [160*],  £1.  2s. 

Ditto  [161],  11s. 

Bass-relief  of  Victory,  17s. 
Fragment  of  Victory,  6s. 


TEMPLE  OF  ARTEMIS,  AT  DAPHNE. 

295  Capital  of  Column,  one-half  [264], 
15s. 

23  Ditto  Face  [388],  8s. 

297  Quarter  of  Shaft  [265],  15s. 

45  Part  of  Shaft  [134],  £1.  6s. 

46  Base  of  Column  [135],  16s. 

TEMPLE  OF  CERES,  AT  ELEUSIS. 

173  Fleuron  [169],  18s. 

ARCHITECTURAL  FRAGMENTS  FROM 
ATHENS. 

102  Fragment  of  Capital  of  Corinthian 
Column  [21381  6s. 

I 34  Volute,  N.  Front  of  Acropolis 
[410] . 2s.  6 d. 

I 35  Moulding  [407],  2s.  6 d. 

I 41  Antefixal.  or  Tile  Ornament  [412], 
2s.  6 (7. 

Ditto  [413],  2s.  6(7. 

I 42  “ [414],  2s.  6 d. 

I 33  “ [417],  2s.  6(7. 

“ 2s. 

STATUES. 

306  Icarus  (Apollo)  [113],  £2. 12s. 
Head,  cast  from  plaster  [106*],  7s. 


No. 

SEPULCHRAL  URNS. 
148  [199],  12s. 

104  [275],  6s. 


BASS-RELIEFS. 


107 
I 183 
284 

235 

236 
109 
247 
251 
163 
238 

94 

292* 


176],  12s. 
177*],  8s.  6 cl. 
3s. 

, £1. 

,12s. 

, 5s. 

, Is.  6(7. 

, Is.  6(7. 

, 10s. 

, 7s. 

3s. 


189 
193' 
1 97' 
198' 
209' 
214' 
263' 
278' 
279] 


[283],  2s.  6(7. 
103*  [300] , 3s.  6(7. 
99  [324], 15s. 

112  1330' . 4s. 

126  [335],  2s. 

236*  [336],  Is. 


175 

84 

89 

82 

227 

101 

108 

213 


2s.  6(7. 
Is.  6(7. 
Is.  6(7. 
2s.  6(7. 
5s. 

4s. 

3s.  6(7. 
6s. 


'leuron  [418] . 8s. 

“ 429*],  3s.  6(7. 

“ ’435],  4s.  6(7. 

“ [436] , 18s. 

Cast  from  plaster  [437],  10s. 

“ V ' 


438 
439' 
442' 
.444] 

Ornament  of  Stele]  No 


12s. 

16s. 

5s. 

10s. 

7, 18s. 


TOMB  OF  AGAMEMNON,  AT  MYCENJS. 


220  Part  of  Frieze  [177],  6s.  6(7. 

221  “ “ [18o],  6s. 


GREEK  INSCRIPTIONS. 


XII.  53 
92 
214 
177 
302 
200 
XI.  13  I. 
XI.  51  4. 
III.  36 


Inscription 


E 167*].  9s. 
E 173],  7s. 
E 266' , 5s. 
E 377],  8s. 
E 378],  8s. 
E 379],  7s. 
5s. 

6s. 


Aleamenes,  Shield  of,  11s. 
Damasicreon,  Inscription  in 
honor  of,  5s. 


PHIGALEIAN  SALOON. 


Temple  of  Apollo. 


25 

Fragment  of  Metope, 

, 8s. 

28 

u 

“ 

7s. 

29 

CC 

u 

7s. 

30 

Cl 

7s. 

25 

Part  of  Capital, 

8s. 

26 

Part  of  Cornice, 

55. 

27 

“ Cl 

OS. 

340 


APPENDIX  II. 


No. 

39  Tile,  6s. 

40  “ 5s. 

The  whole  frieze,  In  twenty-three 
pieces,  £30. 

Single  slabs  in  proportion. 
MAUSOLEUM  AT  HALICARNASSUS. 


i No. 

| Nos.  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  £2.  5s.  each. 

' No.  9.  18s. 

Nos.  10  to  18,  inclusive,  £2.  5s.  each. 
Part  of  a Cornice  from  the  Mausoleum  of 
Halicarnassus,  5s. 

A Lion,  from  Castle  of  St.  Peter,  Bud- 
rum,  £5. 


Statue. 


OLD  TEMPLE  OF  SELINUS. 


Mausolos,  found  under  the  steps  of  the 
Pyramid,  outside  the  Northern  Peribo- 
lis  wall  of  the  Mausoleum  [C.  T.  N. 
1S57],  £15. 


Busts. 

Mausolus,  ditto,  15s. 

A Bearded  Head,  ditto,  5s. 

Head  of  Apollo,  5s. 

Frieze. 

The  whole  set,  including  four  slabs  re- 
cently moulded,  £36. 

No.  1,  15s. 

Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  £1.  15s.  each. 


Heads  of  Perseus,  Athene,  and  Gorgon, 
15s. 

BA8SI-RELIEVI. 

XI.  6 3 Offering  of  Philombrotu6,  4s. 
XI.  6 4 Lustration  of  a Horse,  by  He- 
cate. 5s. 

ITT.  6 Consulting  the  Delphic  Del- 
ties,  14s. 

M.  7 Hercules  and  Maenalian  Stag, 

4s. 

III.  13  Offering  to  Apollo,  8s. 

III.  41  Sepulchral  Monument,  15s. 

III.  63  Stele  of  Exacestes,  10s. 

XI.  6 1 Tablet  of  Abeita,  Is.  6 d. 
Sepulchral  Stele,  10s. 


T 

T 


T 

T 

T 


GRAECO-ROMAN  SCULPTURES. 


STATUES. 

15  Venus  (Aphrodite).  Ostia,  £5. 

43  Discobolus  (Disk  thrower),  an- 
cient copy  from  a bronze 
statue  bv  Myron.  who  flour- 
ished B.C.431.  £7.  10s. 

13  Astragalizusa,  from  the  Villa 
Verospl.  Rome,  £1.  10s. 

18  Venus  Architis  37,  12s. 

17  Venus  (Aphrodite)  (Torso), 
stooping  to  adjust  her  San- 
dal, 5s. 


Venus  (Aphrodite)  (Torso). 
Shattered  in  a fire  at  Rich- 
mond House.  1791,  9s. 

T 16  Venus  (Aphrodite),  Ostia.  £1. 

T 19  Cupid  (Eros),  Rome.  £2.  10s. 

T 121  Cupid  (Eros),  found  inside  a 
large  Amphora.  at.Castello-dl- 
Guido.  near  Rome,  15s. 

T 21  Boy  Bacchus.  Villa  of  Antoni- 
nus Piuss  Lanuvium,  £3. 

T 1 Bacchus  and  Ampelus.  La 
Storta,  near  Rome,  £5. 


APPENDIX  II. 


341 


No. 

No. 

T 

22 

Ariadne.  Roma  Vecchia,  near 

T 

44 

Rome,  £3.  15s. 

T 

38 

T 

26 

Pan  (Terminal),  35,  found  near 

T 

3 

Civita  Lavinia  Lanuvium,  £1. 
10s. 

Satyr  (Rondinini  Faun),  form- 

II. 

15 

erly  in  Rondinini  Palace, 
Rome,  £4. 

VI. 

31 

T 

30 

Satyr.  Haccarani  Palace,  Rome, 

VI. 

26 

£1.  15s. 

T 

29 

Satyr  ^Paniskos),  Civita  Lavinia 

VI. 

56 

(Lanuvium),  £1.  5s. 

II. 

13 

T 

37 

Muse  inscribed  Eumousia,  12s. 

H. 

40* 

Canephora.  £5. 

The  Muse  Erato,  £1.  os. 
Actaeon  devoured  hy  his  Dogs, 
Villa  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
£2. 

Victory.  £1.  10s. 

Victory  sacrificing  a Bull,  £3. 
10s. 

Victory  sacrificing  a Bull,  £3. 
10s. 

Sphinx,  £2.  10s. 

Chimera,  12s. 

Hercules  (Torso),  5s. 


BUSTS. 


Caius  Julius  Ctesar.  Born 
B.C.  101.  Assassinated  B.C. 
44.  6s. 

C.  Jul.  Octavianus  Caesar  Au- 
gustus. Born  B.C.  63.  Died 
A.D  14,10s. 

Luc.  Domitius  Nero.  Born 
AD.  37.  Emp.  A.D.  54-68. 
— Athens,  7s. 

T 93  M.  Ulpius  Crinitus  Trnjanus. 

Born  A.D.  52.  Emp.  A D 
98-117. — Campagna  of  Rome, 
13s. 

T 97  Antinous  in  the  character  of 
Bacchus.  Died  about  A.D. 
132.  — Villa  Pamfili.  Rome, 
18s. 

T 100  Marcus  Aurelius, , as  frater  A r- 
Valis).  Born  A.D.  121.  Emp. 
A.D.  161-180.  15s. 

T 101  Annia  Faustina  Junior,  wife 
of  the  Emp.  M.  Aurelius. 
Born  A.D.  140.  Died  A.D. 
175.  — Pozzuolo,  15s. 

Another  of  same,  different.  6s. 
6(7. 

T 104  L.  Septimius  Severus.  Born 
A.D.  145.  Emp.  A.D.  193- 
211.  — Palatine  Hill,  Rome, 
11s. 


T 102  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  Cara - 
calla.  Born  A.D.  188.  Emp. 
A.D.  211-217.  — Esquiline 
Hill.  Rome,  11s. 

T 167  Octacilia  Severn,  wife  of  the 
Emp.  Philippus  I..  6s.  6 d. 

T 106  Unknown  (probably  a barba- 
rian chieftain).  — Eorum  of 
Trajan.  Rome,  8s. 

Unknown  (of  doubtful  antiq- 
uity). — Presented  by  Peter 
Ducane,  Esq  , 9s. 


T 

85 

Homer.  — Baiae,  12s. 

T 

87 

Creek  Poet  — Albano,  10s. 

T 

90 

Sophocles.  10s. 

T 

88 

Periander.  Seventh  century 

B C . 11s. 

T 

91 

Pericles.  B.C.  497- 429* -Ti- 

voli,  7s. 

Demosthenes.  B.C.  384-322, 
10s. 

Diogenes.  Bequeathed  by  R. 
Payne  Knight,  1824.  9s. 

T 89  Epicurus  B.C.  342-  271.— 
Rome,  10s. 

T 92  Hippocrates.  Born  B.C.  460. 
Found  near  Albano,  12s. 
Aeschines, 11s. 

T 50  Jupiter  (Zeus),  part  of  a statue, 
12s. 


342 


APPENDIX  II. 


No. 

T 51  Jupiter  Serapis,  with  a rnodius 
decorated  with  olives,  the  face 
colored,  8s. 

T 53  Juno  (IXera)  wearing  a frontal, 
(Rome),  12s. 

T 242  Minerva.  Found  near  Rome, 
15s. 

Minerva  ( Athens),  the  helmet 
and  drapery  restored,  in 
Bronze.  — Rome,  18s. 

T 57  Minerva  (Athens).  — Rome,  7s. 
Or/. 

Mercurius  (Hermes),  of  early 
style.  10s. 

T 70  Mercurius,  Small  Head  of.  10s. 

T 00  Apollo  (Apollon),  ancient  copy 
from  an  early  bronze,  10s. 

T 59  Apollo.  10s. 

Apollo,  7s.  O'l. 

T 01  Diana  (Artemis),  10s. 

Diana,  6s. 

T 12  Diana  from  statue  of  Diana 

(Artemis),  hurling  a Javelin. — 
La  Storta.  near  Rome.  8s. 

T 62  Mercurius  (Hermes),  9s. 

T 03  Bacchus,  14s. 

T 64  Bacchus  [29],  15s. 

T 65  Bacchus.  10s.  (id. 

Libera.  9s.- 

Satyr.  Bequeathed  by  R.  Payne 
Knight,  7s.  6 d. 

Heroic  Head.  From  the  col- 
lection of  the  late  S.  Rogers, 
7s.  6(7. 


Hercules.  Colossal  No.  2.  Found 
in  the  lava  at  foot  of  Mount 
Vesuvius.  £1.  los. 


T 77 

Hercules.  — Barbarini  Palace, 
Rome,  10s. 

T 72 

Atys,  5s.  fid. 

T 76 

Hercules  (terminal  bust  of),  10s. 

T 76 

Muse.  5s. 

T 86 

Ajax  (Diomede).  Found  in 
Villaof  Hadrian,  1771, 10s.  6rZ. 

T 54 

Dione,  10s. 

T 79 

Unknown  (Clytie).  Probably' 
an  Empress  of  the  Augustan 
Period.  10s.  fid. 

Head  XII.  3, 10s. 

Head  of  a seated  Demeter,  5s. 

XII.  2 

Female  Head.  9s. 

VI.  42 

“ *■  9s. 

XII.  13 

Bust  of  Youth,  6s. 

XI.  2 

Female  Head,  5s.  6 d. 

T 42 

Diana,  18s. 

T 71 

Female  Head  (unknown),  6s. 

Crf. 

Venus  (Aphrodite).  From  the 
collection  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  fis. 

Female  Head.  Perhapscopied 
from  a bronze  found  near 
Censano,  0s. 

Apollo  (Pourtalis  Collection), 

£1. 

iE-eulnpius.  Blacas  Collec- 
tion. £1. 

Hadrian,  from  bronze,  7s.  6 d. 

STATUETTES  FROM  BRONZE. 

T 3S  Hercules  ia  the  Garden  of 
the  Hesperides,  15s. 


No. 

T 10  Apollo,  wearing  a Chlamys, 

15s. 

R.P.K.  V.  2 Apollo  bending  his  Bow,  8s. 
Apollo,  K.,  4s. 

Apollo,  6s.  6 d. 

Jupiter,  Serapis,  5s. 

Jupiter  (one  arm),  5s.  6 d. 
Minerva  6s. 

Minerva,  6s. 

Diana.  K..  5s. 

Vulcan,  K.,  4s. 

Venus,  K.  Bequeathed  by 
R.  P.  Knight,  Esq.,  6s. 
Venus,  5s. 

Venus,  5s. 

Venus.  4s.  6 d. 

Cupid,  K.,  2s. 

Cupid,  K.  4,  2s. 

Cupid.  Iv.  13.  2s. 

Cupid.  Iv.,  2s. 

R.P.K,  LX.  4 Mercury,  4s. 

Bacchus,  6s. 

Silenus,  5s. 

Satyr,  5s. 

Faun,  5s.  6 d. 

Hercules,  without  tree,  £1. 

Is. 

Hercules.  5s. 

Hercules,  6s. 

Hercules,  5s. 

Hercules,  with  club  in  right 
hand.  5s. 

Salus,  5s. 

Fortune,  7s. 

R.P.K.  XXVIII.  1 Isis,  5s. 

Atys.  3s.  6 d. 

Victory',  7s. 

Victory,  4s. 

Sophocles.  8s. 

Alexander,  Ss. 

Hadrian,  7s.  6 d. 

Roman  in  Toga,  Case  29, 
No  36.  4s.  M. 

Ditto  with  Mask,  on  pedes- 
tal, 4s.  6rZ. 

Horse,  7s.  6 d. 

Bull,  7s. 

BUSTS  FROM  BRONZES. 

Minerva,  K.,  3s. 

Bacchus  (youthful),  2s.  M. 
Satyr,  Is. 

Amazon,  5 S. 

MISCELLANEOUS,  FROM  BRONZES. 

Lamp,  2s.  6 d. 

*•  Eagle,  4s. 

“ Peacock  Handle,  5s. 

“ Leaf  Pattern.  K.,  2s. 

“ Lion’s  Head,  2s. 

“ A Foot,  2s. 

“ “ smaller,  Is. 

BASSI-REI.l  EVI. 

XI.  11  Minerva,  4s. 

XI.  22  Apollo  at  the  Altar.  From  al- 
tar sacred  to  Apollo  [22],  3s. 
XH.  22  Sacrifice  to  Apollo.  From 
altar  saered  to  Apo'lo,  3s. 
XI4.  Pluto  and  Fortune,  7s. 


APPENDIX  II. 


343 


No. 

III.  12  Bacchanalian  G-roup,  £1.  2s. 

Satyr  and  Nymphs,  7s.  6 cl. 

III.  II  Dioscuri,  6s. 

Castor,  10s.  . 

VI.  54  Priam  and  Achilles,  8s.  » 

III.  23  Apotheosis  of  Homer,  £2. 

VI.  28  T.  131  Bacchante,  from  a can- 
delabrum, 3s.  6 d. 

T.  149  Bacchus  and  Attendants  visit- 
ing Icarius,  £2.  2s. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  7s.  6 d. 

T 121  Castor  with  a Horse  and  Dog, 
10s. 

12  Two  Satyrs  and  Bacchante, 
Procession  of,  £1.  10s.  6(7.  i 

T 139  Apollo.  Diana,  Latona,  and 
Three  Suppliants,  10s.  6 d. 

Apollo,  Musagetes,  and  Vic- 
tory, 10s. 

T 131  Bacchante,  from  a candela- 
brum, 3s.  6(7. 

T 137  Hercules  and  Stag.  3s.  6 cl. 

Leda  and  Swan,  10s.  6(7. 

VASES. 

II.  7 Vase,  19s. 


No. 

H.  9 Bacchic  Vase,  16s. 
Portland,  5s. 


URNS. 


V. 

2 

Roman  Urn,  12s. 

V. 

12 

“ “ 15s. 

V. 

14 

“ “ 15s. 

V. 

36 

“ “ 12s. 

V. 

37 

“ “ 14s. 

Cast  of  Alabaster  Urn,  with 
Cover,  5s. 


TERRA-COTTAS. 

Bellerophon  and  the  Chimmra, 
Is.  6;7. 

Perseus  and  Medusa,  Is.  6(7. 
Alccesus  and  Sappho,  Is.  6(7. 
Vase.  4s. 

Ewer,  3s. 

Basin,  2s.  6(7. 

Lamp,  A N.  41,  Is.  6(7. 

Lamp,  B.E.  No.  1,  2s. 

Lamp,  No.  2,  2s. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


The  Elgin  Bronze  Tablet,  Is. 
6(7. 

The  Potidocan  Inscription,  6s. 

Small  monumental  slab  with 
skeleton  on  it.  T 211,  6s. 

An  Etruscan  Mirror,  with  in- 
cised figure,  2s.  6(7. 

Wishing  Lamp,  5s. 

Fragment  of  a Muse,  CNI- 
DUS , 3s.  6(7. 

Torso  of  Aphrodite,  CNI- 
DUS, 3s,  6(7. 

Bust  of  Kay,  the  Naturalist, 
10s.  6(7. 


xn. 

13 

Hand  holding  Butterfly  (1250). 
7s. 

XII. 

13 

Hand  holding  Butterfly,  3s. 

VI. 

30 

Colossal  Toe,  2s.  6(7. 

III. 

21* 

Foot,  Is.  6(7. 

VI. 

19 

Goat's  Head,  7s. 

H. 

VI. 

Triangular  base  of  a Cande- 

labrum,  Cupids  with  Ar- 
mor £1.  15s. 


Pig  of  Lead,  inscribed  Domi- 
tianus,  4s. 


Small  Eagle.  10s. 

Head  of  a large  Eagle,  2s. 

XI.  II.  Sleeping  Child,  4s.  6(7. 

III.  23*  Masks,  Comic  and  Tragic,  6s. 
III.  24*  Comic  and  Tragic  Masks  on  a 
revolving  Panel,  14s. 

III.  25*  Mask,  2s 
XII.  o Lion’s  Head.  12s. 

II.  14  Pedestal,  with  Terminal  Fig- 
ures and  Birds,  8s. 

XII.  1 Olive  and  Vine  Branches,  10s. 
VI.  21  Ornament,  5s. 

3 Trapezopheron,  large,  £1. 10s. 
“ small,  15s. 

III.  10  Festoon,  8s. 

Keystone  of  Triumphal  Arch, 
Frascati  [15J,  10s. 

III.  14  Branch  Ornament,  8s. 

Cellini  Cup,  7s. 

VI.  64  Latin  Inscription  on  Cippus  of 
Antoninus,  9s. 


III. 

MUSEE  IMPERIAL  DU  LOUVRE, 

Catalogue  ties  Pl&tres  qui  se  trouvent  au  Bureau  de  Vente  du  Moulage,  Palais 
du  Louvre.  — Pavilion  Daru. 

I.  — GUOUPES  ANTIQUES. 

Antinoiis  et  Adrien,  groupe  de  Saint  Ildefonse  (MustSe  de  Madrid).  Haut.,  lm. 
50c. m. ; prix,  120f. 

Bacchus  et  Silbne  de  la  Villa  Borghfese.  Mus6e  des  Antiques,  par  Pierre  Bouillon 
III,  pi.  8.  Haut.,  75c. m.;  prix,  40f. 


344 


APPENDIX  II. 


Centaure  prisonnier  de  1’ Amour,  marbre  do  la  Villa  Borghfese.  Musdc  desAntiques, 
I,  64.  Ilaut.,  lm.  47c. m. ; prix,  120  f. 

Diane  chasseresse,  avec  la  Biche,  groupe  de  Versailles.  Haut.,  2m.  13c.m.;  prix, 

300  f. 

Enfant  a I’Oie.  Musee  des  Antiques.  II.  30  Haut  . 92c.m.;  prix,  60f 
Esculape  et  Tblesphore.  Musee  des  Amiques.  Ill,  11.  Haut.,  73c.m  ; prix  15f. 
Laocoun,  marbre  du  Vatican,  trouve  en  5u6  sur  le  mont  Esquilin,  oeuvre  d’Agdsan- 
dre,  de  1’olydore  et  d’Atbdnodore  de. Rhodes.  Haut.,  2m.  23c  m. ; prix.  400f. 
Lutteurs  de  Florence.  Galleria  di  Firenze,  HI,  121. 122.  Haut  . lm.;  prix,  120f. 
Fils  de  Niobe  avec  son  Pedagogue,  trouve  it  Soissons  en  1831.  Clarac,  pi.  589, 
n.  1281.  Haut..  lm.  76c. m.;  prix,  200f 

Deux  Barques  du  Parthenon  (British  Museum).  Clarac,  pi.  824,  n.  2071,  F.  Haut., 
lm.  50c. in.;  larg  , 2m.;  prix,  lOOf 

Satyre  tirunt  uue  opine  du  pied  d’ua  Faunc,  groupe  de  la  Villa  Borghese.  Musde 
des  Antiques,  III,  13.  Ilaut..  05c. m.;  prix.  25f. 

Sllenc  portant  le  jeune  Bacchus,  marbre  de  la  Villa  Borghese,  dit  Faune  a l’Enfant. 
Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  54.  Haut.,  2.n.  3e.m.;  prix,  200f. 

II.  — GUOUPES  MODERNES. 

Amour  et  Psyche,  par  F.  Delaistre.  Ilaut..  lm.  01c  m.;  prix,  lOOf. 

Bacchante  portant  un  Faunisque.  par  Clodion.  Ilaut..  lm.  OOc.m.;  prix.  SOf. 
l.es  trois  Graces,  par  Germain  l’ilon,  1500.  H-iut  , lm.  50c.m.;  prix,  300f. 

Ledu  jouant  aveb  le  cygne.  par  Jean  Thierry,  1717.  Ilaut..  81c  m.;  prix.  50f. 
Mercure  et  Psychd.  bronze  par  Adrien  do  Vries.  Ilaut  , 2m.  l.ic.m. ; prix,  150f. 
Milon  de  Crotone,  par  Pierre  Puget.  13S2  Haut  , 2m.  80c.m. ; prix,  500f. 

Milon  do  Crotone.  par  Faleounet.  1754.  Ilaut..  70c  m.;  prix.  SOf. 

Nympho  et  ehevre  Amalthee.  par  Julien,  1791.  Ilaut.,  1 n.  80c. m. ; prix,  250f. 
Zephyre  et  Psyche,  par  Rutchiel,  1814.  Haut.,  lm.  55c.m.;  ptix,  150f. 


III.  - STATUES  ANTIQUES. 

A.  STATUES  fcGVPTIEXNES. 

Sdvekhotep  III,  rol  de  la  XIIP  dynastic.  Ilaut.,  2m. ; prix,  200f. 

Ouaphres,  fonctionuaire  royal  de  I'epoque  sailique.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  60f. 

B.  STATUES  GRECQUES  ET  ROMAIXES. 

Achilla  Borghese.  Mnsde  des  Antiques.  II,  14.  Haut.,  2m.  30c. m.;  prix.  150f. 
Adonis  du  Vatican.  Musde  des  Antiques.  II,  12.  Ilaut  , lm.  91c  m. ; prix.  lOOf. 
Adorant.  dit  Genie  suppliant,  bronze  du  musee  Berlin.  Musee  des  Antiques,  II,  19. 
Ilaut.,  lm.  44c  m.;  prix,  SOf. 

Amazone  Mattel,  du  musee  Capitolin.  Musee  des  Antiques.  II,  10.  Haut.,  2ra. 
10c. m. ; prix,  200f. 

Amour. jouant  an  ballon.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  9.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  50f. 
Amour  en  llerculc.  Musee  des  Antiques,  III,  9 Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  30f. 

Antinod*  du  Capitole.  Musee  des  Amiques,  II.  49.  Ilaut..  lm.  93c.in. ; prix,  120f. 
Antlnolis  du  Belvdddre.  Musco  Pio-Clcmentino,  I,  pi.  7;  Music  des  Antiques,  I, 
27.  Haut..  2m  75c.m.;  prix,  140f. 

Apollino  do  Florence.  Haut.,  lm.40cm.;  prix,  60f. 

Apollon  du  Belvedere  Haut..  2m.  33c  ra.:  prix.  150f. 

Apollon  Sauroctone.  de  la  Villa  Borghese.  Music  des  Antiques,  1, 19.  Haut.,  lm. 
67c.m.;  prix.  llOf. 

Apollon  Sauroctone.  Ilaut.,  'm.  7c  m.;  prix.  25f. 

Ariadne  abandonnee,  bronze  du  Primatice  dans  le  jardin  des  Tuilcries,  marbre  du 
Vatican.  Musee  des  Antiques,  II.  9.  Barg..  2m  ; prix,  200f. 

Atalante  ajustant  sa  chlamyde.  dite  Diane  de  Gabies.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I.  21. 
Ilaut.,  Ira.  76c. m.;  prix,  ]50f. 

Atlilbte  Cestiairc  du  Musee  de  Dresde.  Augusteum.  pi.  109.  Haut.,  lm.  68c.m. ; 
prix,  SOf. 

Athlete  versant  de  l’huilc  dans  sa  main,  statue  de  la  Villa  Borghbse.  Musee  des 
Antiques,  TIB  17.  3.  Haut.,  lm.  60c. m. ; prix.  90f. 

Auguste  du  Palais  Giustiniani  (Venise).  Museo  Pio-Clemenlino,  II,  45;  Musde  des 
Antiques,  II,  33.  Haut.,  2m.  7c.m  ; prix,  120f. 

Bacchus  Richelieu.  Musee  des  Antiques.  I.  31.  naut.,  lm.  94c.m.;  prix,  150f. 
Bacchus  tenant  tine  coupe.  Clarac,  Musee  de  Sculpture,  pi.  273.  n.  1575.  Ilaut., 
lm.  48c. m ; prix,  SOf. 

Suivant  de  Bacchus  (restaure  en  Hercule).  Mus^e  des  Antiques,  IH,  pi.  16,  4. 
Haut.,  lm.45c.rn.;  prix.  SOf. 

Ceres  Mattei.  du  Vatican.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  7.  Haul.,  lm.  8c. m.;  prix.  25£ 
Cerbs  du  Bouvre.  Clarac,  pi.  278,  n.  754.  Haut.,  lm.  24c.m. ; prix,  60f. 


APPENDIX  II. 


845 


Cdrhs  assise  du  Musde  de  Berlin.  Gerhard,  Antike  Bildwerke,  pi.  21.  Haut.,  lrn. 
4c. m.;  prix,  72f. 

Commode  .jeune  de  Gabies.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  20,  4.  Haut.,  lm.  76c.m. ; 
prix,  200f. 

Discobole  du  Musde  Pie-Cldraentin.  Musde  des  Antiques,  II,  17.  Haut,.,  lm.  80c.m. ; 
prix,  120f. 

Escbine,  dit  Aristide,  du  Musde  de  Naples.  Real  Museo  Borbouico,  I,  50.  Haut., 
2m.  11c. m.;  prix,  120f. 

Esculape  Assis.  Haut.,  67c  m. ; prix.  15f. 

Euripide  assis  de  la  Villa  Albani,  trouvd  sur  le  mont  Esquilin.  Musde  des  Antiques, 
III,  18, 1.  Haut..  60c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

Euterpe  Borgbfese.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  44.  Haut.,  Ira.  50c. m. ; prix,  80f. 

Faune  dansant  du  Musee  de  Turin.  Haut , lm.  52c.m. ; prix,  80f. 

Faunes  flOteurs  (deux),  de  la  Villa  Borgb&se.  Husde  des  Antiques,  I,  53;  Clarae, 
pi.  296,  n.  1670,  1671.  Haut..  lm.  39c. m.;  prix,  chacun.  60f. 

Faune  au  chevreau  de  Madrid.  Clarae,  pi.  726®,  n.  167 lh . Haut.,  lm.  47c. m. ; 
prix,  80f. 

Faune  en  repos  du  Capltole.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  55.  Haut.,  lm.  84c. m. ; prix, 
120f. 

Jeune  Fille  romaine.  Musee  des  Antiques,  II,  65.  Haut.,  lm.  35  c m. ; prix,  70f. 

Jeune  Fille  romaine,  dite  Julie,  trouvee  a Bengazi.  Clarae,  pi.  311,  u.  2482.  Haut., 
lm.  51c. m ; prix,  80f. 

Flore  BorghOse.  MusOe  des  Antiques,  I,  52.  Haut.,  lm.  58c. m.;  prix,  120f. 

Genie  du  repos  bternel.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  59.  Haut.,  lm  91e.m  ; prix,  llOf. 

Guerrier  grec,  dit  Hector,  du  temple  d’Egine  (Glyptothbque  de  Munich).  Haut., 
lm.  50c. m.;  prix.  60f. 

Hermaphrodite  Borghbse.  Haut.,  89c. m.;  larg.,  lm.  48c. m.;  prix,  92f. 

Hermes  (deux),  tetes  de  jeunes  Grecs,  de  la  salle  de  la  sculpture  grecque  primitive 
du  Louvre.  Haut.,  Ira.  30c. m. ; prix,  chacun,  3f. 

Heros  combattant,  dit  le  Gladiateur  Borghbse,  ceuvre  d’Agasias,  fils  de  Dosithee, 
fiphdsien.  Haut.,  lm.  63c. m. ; prix,  200f. 

Hygiee.  Clarae.  Musee  de  Sculpture,  pi.  3051,  n.  1170  Haut.,  lm.  50c. m. ; prix,  80f. 

Joueuse  aux  osselets  du  Musee  de  Berlin.  Mu.sde  des  Antiques,  H,  30.  Haul., 
70c.m. ; prix,  50f.  * 

Julie  en  Cdres.  Musee  des  Antiques,  II,  54.  Haut.,  Ira.  70c. m.;  prix,  70f. 

Julien  l’Apostat.  Clarae,  pi.  978,  n.  2528.  Haut.,  lm.  50c. m_;  prix,  80f. 

Mars,  dit  Alexandre  de  Gabies,  oeuvre  d’Hdraclide  et  d’Harmatios.  Musee  des 
Antiques,  HI,  18,  2.  Haut..  80c. m. ; prix,  25f. 

Melpomhne,  statue  eolossale.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  43.  Haut.,  3m  92c.m.;  prix, 
600  f. 

Melpomfene.  Musde  des  Antiques,  in,  11,  4.  Haut.,  90c.m. ; prix,  20f. 

Mercure  assis,  bronze  de  Portici  au  Musee  de  Naples.  Real  Museo  Borbonico,  HI, 
41,  42.  Haut.,  lm.  25c.m. ; prix,  120f. 

Mercure  attachant  sa  chaussure,  dit  Jason.  Musde  des  Antiques,  H,  0.  Haut.  lm. 
75c.m. ; prix,  160f. 

Mercure  de  Versailles,  dit  Germanicus.  ceuvre  de  Cldomhne,  fils  de  Cleom^ne, 
Athenien.  Haut.,  lm.  95c.m. ; prix,  140f. 

Muse  (restauree  en  Clio).  Musee  des  Antiques,  III,  10,  5.  Haut..  90c.m.;  prix.  20f. 

Niobide  agenouille,  de  la  Glyptothbque  de  Munich.  Haut.,  lm.  23c.m. ; prix,  1001. 

Pallas  de  Velletri.  Haut.,  3m.  18c  m.;  prix.  400f. 

Polymnie  Borghhse.  Haut.,  lm.  86c. m. ; prix,  150f 

La  PudieitA  Mu^fie  des  Antiques,  II,  64.  Haut.,  2ra. ; prix,  lOOf. 

Silene  a l’Outre.  Musee  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  12,  2.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  25f. 

Thalie.  Musee  des  Antiques.  HI,  pi.  11, 1.  Haut.,  lm.  76c.m.;  prix,  150f. 

Tireur  d’epine  du  Vatican.  Haut.,  73c. m. ; prix,  36f. 

Vdnus  accroupie.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  14.  Haut  , 96c. ra. ; prix,  25f. 

Vdnus  d’ Arles.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  13.  Haut  , 2m.  lOe.m.;  prix,  150f. 

Vbnus  a la  coquille.  Musbe  des  Antiques.  1, 15.  Haut.,  66c.m . ; prix,  50f. 

Vdnus  de  Versailles,  dite  Genitrix.  Musde  des  Antiques,  1, 12.  Haut.,  lm.  75o.m. ; 
prix,150f 

Vdnus  de  Mddicis  (Musee  de  Florence),  ceuvre  de  Cleomhne,  fils  d’Apollodore, 
Athenien.  Haut.,  lm.  64c. m.;  prix.  lOOf. 

Vdnus  de  Milo.  Haut.,  2m.  16c.m. ; prix,  120f. 

IV.  — STATUES  MODERNES. 

L’Abondance,  par  Barthelemy  Prieur,  bronze  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  lm.  28c.m.;  prix, 
60  f. 

Amour  prdsentant  une  rose  h.  un  papillon,  par  Chaudet,  1810.  Haut.,  80c.m. ; prix, 
60f. 

Atalante  faisant  sa  toilette,  par  James  Pradier,  1850.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  80f. 

Baigneuse,  par  Falconnet,  1757.  Haut.,  70c.m. ; prix,  40f. 


346 


APPENDIX  II. 


CrOpuseule,  Aurore,  Jour  et  Nuit.  tombeau  dea  Medicls  a Florence,  par  Michel- Ange. 

Copies  rOduites  des  quatre  figures  couchees.  Ptix,  chacune,  30f. 

Cyparisse  pleurant  son  faon,  j>ar  Chaudet,  1798.  Haut.,  lm.  50e.tn.;  larg.,  56c.m.; 
prix,  120f. 

Jeanne  d’Are,  par  la  princesse  Mathilde  d’Orldans.  Haut.,  2m.  20c. m.;  prix,  200f. 
Judith,  par  Ladatte,  1741.  Haut.,  89e.m.;  prix,  50f. 

Marie  Leczinska,  par  Guillaume  Couatou.  Clarac,  MusOe  de  Sculpture,  pi.  368°,  n. 
2650b.  Haut.,  2m  ; prix,  200f. 

Roberto  Legendre,  epouse  de  Louis  Poncher.  morte  en  1522  (figure  couchee).  Larg., 
lm.  85c. m.;  prix,  80f. 

Louis  XIV.,  statue  dquestre  par  Girardon,  16J9.  Haut.,  lm.  2c. m. ; prix,  120f. 
Mercure  attachant  ses  talonnihres,  par  Pigalle,  1745.  Haut.,  58c.m.;  prix,40f. 

Milon  de  Crotone,  par  Edme  Dumont,  1768.  Haut.,  Slc.m, ; prix,  50f. 

Nympho  Salmacis,  par  Frangois-Joaeph  Bosio,  1819.  Haut.,  83c.m.;  prix,  80f. 

Paris  le  Berger,  par  Giliet,  1757.  Haut.,  85c.m.;  prix,  40f. 

Phiiopcemen,  par  David  d’  Angers  (Jardin  des  Tuilerios).  Haut.,  2ra.  40c.m.:  prix, 
200f. 

Prisontiier  les  bras  lies,  par  Michel- Ange.  Clarac,  Musee  de  Sculpture,  pi.  357,  n. 
2590.  Haut.,  2m.  15c.m.;  prix.  lOOf. 

Jeutie  Prisontiier,  le  bras  replie  au-dessus  de  la  tete,  par  Michel- Ange.  Clarac,  pi. 

357,  n.  -’o'.iT.  Haut.,  2m.  35c.m.;  prix,  120f.  • 

Promethee  enchaine,  par  Pradier  (Jardin  des  Tuileries).  Haut.,  lm.  50c.m.;  larg., 
2m.;  prix.  200f. 

Ulysse  tendant  son  arc.  par  J.  Bousseau,  1715.  Haut.,  86c. m. ; prix,  50f. 

Venus  au  bain,  par  Allegrain.  1767.  Haut.,  lm.  60e.m.;  prix,  200f. 

Voltaire  dans  son  fauteuil  (Comcdie-Fransaise),  par  Houdon.  Haut.,  lm.  65c.m.; 
prix,  250f. 

V.  — FRAGMENTS  DE  STATUES  ET  TORSES. 

Amour  grec  dti  Vatican.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  15.  Haut.,  73c. m.;  prix,  15f. 
Hsope  de  la  Villa  Albani  (Musee  du  Capitole).  Clarac,  pi.  1023,  n.  2905.  Haut., 
50c. m. ; prix,  20f. 

Faune  cymballier.  Mus4e  des  Antiques,  HI.  pi.  13,  3.  Haut.,  73c.m. ; prix,  7f. 
Femmes,  deux  torses  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  Slc.m. ; prix,  6f. 

“ “ “ “ 48c.m.;  “ 2f.  50c. 

Hercule  du  Belvedere,  ceuvre  d’ Apollonius,  Ills  de  Nestor,  AtluSnien.  Mus6e  des 
Antiques,  II.  4.  Haut.,  lm.  4Sc.m  ; prix.  72f. 

Hermaphrodite  Borghhse.  Haut.,  BOc.m. ; prix,  5f. 

Hommes,  trois  torses  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  88c. m. ; prix.  6f. 

*•  •*  “ 70c. m.,  *•  6f. 

“ “ “ 51e.m.,  “ 3f.  50c. 

Inopus.  Clarac,  pi.  750  et  1086,  n.  1820.  Haut..  97c.m. ; prix,  18f. 

Laocoon,  torse  avec  la  tOle.  Haut , lm.  12c.m. ; prix,  30f. 

Marsyas,  torse  avec  1 1 tete.  Musee  des  Antiques,  1,56.  Haut,,  lm.22c.m.;  prix,  30f. 
Poseidon  du  Parthenon  (Musee  Britannique).  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  20f. 

Psyche  du  Musee  de  Naples.  Haut  94c.m.;  prix,  lOf. 

V6nus  do  Medicis.  Haut.,  69c.ni. ; prix,  6f. 

Venus  de  Milo.  Haul.,  lm.  5c.m.;  prix,  40f. 

Milon  de  Crotone,  par  Pierre  Puget.  Haut.,  lm.  45  c.m.;  prix,  60f. 


VI.  — STATUETTES  ANTIQUES. 

A.  STATUETTES  liGYPTIENNES. 

Ladeesse  Pacbt.  Haut.,  60c. m.:  prix,  lOf. 

Le  roi  Amenophis  IV.  Clarac.  pi.  995,  n.  2549-.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  lOf. 

B.  MAUBRES  GRECS. 

Pallas  d’ancien  style.  Musee  des  Antiques,  HI,  pi.  1,  1.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  lOf. 
Pallas  du  Parthenon,  imitation  de  l’muvre  de  Phidias.  Gerhard,  Denkmaler,  1860, 
pi.  135,  3,  4.  Haut,,  40e.m. ; prix,  3f. 


C.  FIGURTXES  EN  BRONZE. 

Jeune  Acteur.  Haut.,  loe.m. : prix,  2f.  50c. 

Enfant romain.  Haut.,  lOc.m. ; prix,  3f.  50c. 

Faune.  Haut.,  3Ic.m. ; larg.,  7c.m. ; prix,  6f 
Gdnie  spheriste.  Haut..  12c. m. ; prix.  3f.  50c. 

Hercule  Philopotis.  Haut.,  14c.m. ; prix,  3f.  50c. 

Hercule  decore  d’utie  couronne  de  peuplier.  Haut.,  15m.;  pris,  3f, 
J u pi  ter. __  Haut.,  15c.m. : prix,  If.  50c. 


APPENDIX  II. 


847 


Mercure.  Haut.,  18c. m. ; prix,  If,  50c. 
“ “ 26c. m.,  “ 5f. 

“ “ 22c.m„  “ 6f. 

Neptune.  Haut.,  22  c.m. ; prix,  If. 
Silene.  Haut.,  22c. m. ; prix,  5f. 
Venus.  Haut.,  12c  m.;  prix,  If.  50c. 

“ 14c. m.,  “ If.  50. 

“ “ 17e.m.,  “ If  50c. 


VII. — STATUETTES  MODEENES. 

Enfant  effrayd,  imitation  de  l’antique.  Haut.,  lOc.m. ; prix,  2f,  50c. 

Faune  accroupi  de  Florence,  style  de  Michel- Ange.  Haut.,  22  c.m. ; prix,  4f. 

Henri  IV.  Haut.,  47c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

Hercule  tenant  les  pommes  des  Hespdrides,  imitation  de  l’antique.  Haut.,  19e.m. ; 
prix,  4f. 

Enfant  Jdsus  a la  erdche.  Larg.,  40c. m. ; prix,  lOf. 

Marie  de  Medicis.  Haut.,  49c.m. ; prix,  15f. 


Vin.  — BUSTES  ANTIQUES. 

Achillc  Borghdse.  Haut.,  90c. m. ; prix,  8f. 

Agrippa  de  Gabies.  Clarac,  Musee  de  Sculpture,  pi.  1070,  n.  3252.  Haut.,  46c.m.; 
prix,  5f. 

Alexandre  le  Grand  de  Tivoli.  Visconti,  Iconographie  grecque,  39,  1.  Haut. 
68c. m.;  prix,  12f 

Alexandre  Sjevbre  du  Palais  Braschi.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  Bustes,9, 2.  Haut., 
66c. m.;  prix,  Of. 

Amazone  blessee.  Musde  des  Antiques,  n,  11.  Haut.,  60c. m. ; prix.  8f. 

Amour  grec  du  Vatican.  Haut  , 61c.m. ; prix,  5f. 

Autinoiis  du  Capitole.  Haut.,  62c.m. ; prix,  4f. 

Antinous,  buste  colossal  de  la  Villa  Mondragone  it  Frascati  Musde  des  Antiques, 
11.83.  Haut  ,94cm.;  prix,  12f. 

Antinous.  du  Belvdddre.  Haut.,  75c.m. ; prix,  8f. 

Apollon  du  Belvedere.  Haut.,  85c  m.;  prix,  12f. 

Apollon  dgyptien,  bronze  du  Louvre  Haut.,  50c. m.;  prix,  3f. 

Apollonius  de  Tyanes  (Buste  dit  d’)  bronze  du  Louvre.  Clarac,  pi.  1078,  n.  2762a. 
Haut  , 71c. m.;  prix,  5f. 

Ariadne  du  Capitole.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  70.  Haut.,  73c. m. ; prix,  12f. 

Atalante,  dite  Diane  de  Gabies.  Haut.,  50c. m ; prix,  5f. 

Auguste  portant  la  eouronne  civique  du  Palais  Bevilaequa  a Verotie.  Musee  des 
Antiques,  III,  pi.  5,  4.  Haut.,  70c. m.;  prix,  9f. 

Bacchus  indien  au  turban,  marbre  de  Versailles.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  70.  Haut., 
46c. m.;  prix,  lOf. 

Bacchus  indien,  marbre  rouge  antique  du  Louvre.  Clarac  pi.  1086,  n.  27604.  Haut., 
50c  m. ; prix,  lOf. 

Caracalla,  marbre  de  la  Villa  Borghdse.  Clarac,  pi.  1075,  n.  33 19b.  Haut.,  61c. m. ; 
prix,  5f. 

Ceres,  buste  pris  sur  une  statue  de  la  Villa  Borghdse  Clarac,  pi.  279,  n.  753.  Haut  , 
51c  m. ; prix,  4f. 

Jules  Cesar,  buste  pris  sur  la  statue  du  Louvre.  Haut  , 60c. m ; prix,  lOf. 

Cicdrou.  Haut.,  60c  m. ; prix,  5f. 

Ddmosthdne  de  la  Villa  Albani.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  bustes,  pi.  4,  5.  Haut., 
44c. m. ; prix,  6f. 

Diane  Borgndse,  buste  colossal.  Mu3de  deB  Antiques,  III,  bustes,  pi.  1,  8.  Haut., 
83c  m. ; prix,  8f 

Hlius  Vcr us,  de  la  Villa  Borgbdse.  Clarac,  pi.  1081,  n.  2440.  Haut.,  76c. ra. ; prix, 
lOf. 

Esculape  Albani.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  48.  Haut.,  70c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

Euripide  de  Mantoue.  Musde  des  Antiques,  II,  69.  Haut,,  55c. m.;  prix,  7f.  50c. 

Faune  a la  tache  de  la  Villa  Albani.  Musee  des  Antiques,  H,  72.  Haut.,  48c. m. ; 
prix,  8f. 

Faune  Borghdse.  Haut.,  38c. m. ; prix,  2f. 

Faunes  porteurs  (deux),  de  la  Villa  Albani.  Musde  des  Antiques,  ill,  13.  Haut,. 
5Sc.m.;  prix,  chacun,  12f. 

Faustine  la  Jeune.  Haut.,  60c, m. ; prix,  12f. 

Jeune  Fille  romaine.  Musde  des  Antiques,  II,  65.  Haut.,  40c  m. ; prix,  3f. 

Gordien  Pie  de  Gabies.  Musde  des  Antiques,  H,  90.  Haut  , 61c. m.;  prix,  5f. 

Jeune  Hercule.  Musde  des  Antiques,  II,  67.  Haut.,  61c  m. ; prix.  If. 

Hdros  grec,  marbre  do  la  Villa  Borghdse.  Clarac,  pi.  1085,  n.  2810».  Haut.,  lm.; 
prix,  12f. 


348 


APPENDIX  II. 


Hippocrate  de  Cos.  Musde  des  Antiques,  n,  72.  Haut.,  42c.m. ; prix,  6f. 

Homere  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  55c  m. ; prix,  7f.  50c. 

Isis  grecque.  Ciarac,  pi.  1087.  li.  2733°.  Haut.,  4lc.m. ; prix,  8f. 

Jupiter  d’Otricoli,  du  Musee  du  Vatican.  Haut.,  58c.m.;  prix,  4f. 

Laocodn.  Haut.,  63c. ra. ; prix.  12f. 

Les  deux  Fils  de  Laocodn.  Haut.,  43c. m.;  prix.  chacun,  3f. 

Laocodn  de  Bruxelles  (Musbe  du  due  d’Aremberg).  Monument!  dell’  Instituto,  n, 
41b.  Haut.,  64c.ra. ; prix,  8f. 

Marc-Aurfele,  buste  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  50c.m. ; prix,  8f. 

Mercure,  buste  pris  sur  ie  groupe  de  Mercure  et  Vulcain.  Hus6e  des  Antiques,  I, 
22.  Haut.,  50c  m. ; prix,  5f. 

Miltiade  de  la  Villa  Albani.  Ciarac,  pi.  1094,  n.  2912.  Haut.,  57c.m.;  prix,  6f. 
Neron  Borglifese.  Ciarac,  pi.  1095,  n.  3272b.  Haut..  67cm.;  prix,  of. 

Ompbale  Albani.  Musee  des  Antiques,  H,  67.  Haut.,  66c.m.;  prix,  6f. 

Dieu  marin,  dit  Palemon.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  72.  Haut.,  52cm.;  prix,  4f. 
Pallas  de  Velletri.  Haut..  86c  m.;  prix,  20f. 

Pallas  couverte  du  casque  aux  tfetes  de  belier.  MusOe  des  Antiques,  HI,  pi.  1,  2. 
Haut.,  86c.m.;  prix,  Sf. 

Paris.  Ciarac,  pi.  1097,  n.  2904'.  Haut  , 73c.m. ; prix,  6f. 

Rome  de  la  Villa  Borghese,  buste  colossal.  MusOe  des  Antiques,  I,  74.  Haut., 
92c. m.;  prix,  25f. 

Rome  en  Amazone.  Ciarac,  pi.  1100,  n.  2820'.  Haut.,  77c. m.;  prix,  8f. 

Sapho  du  Capitole.  Il.iut..  44c. m.;  prix.  3f. 

Senbquc,  marbre  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  50c. m.;  prix,  3f. 

Socrate.  Mus6e  des  Antiques.  H,  73.  Haut.,  52c. m. ; prix,  4f. 

Tibdre  Albani.  Ciarac,  pi.  1103.  n.  3255.  Haut..  69c. m. ; prix,  8f. 

Tibere  couronne  de  chene,  marbre  de  (rabies.  Haut.,  57c  m.;  prix,  8f. 

Trajan,  buste  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  50c. m. ; prix,  8f. 

Venus  d’Arles.  Haut  , 67c.m.;  prix,  7f.  50c. 

Venus  du  Capitole.  Haut.,  56c.m.  ; prix,  5f. 

Vbnus  de  Cnide,  marbre  de  la  Villa  Borghbse.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  68.  Haut., 
lm.;  prix,  12f. 

V^nus  de  Versailles,  dite  Gdnitrix.  Haut.,  52c.m.;  prix,  4f. 

Venus  de  Medicis.  Haut.,  64c.m.;  prix,  5f. 

Venus  de  Milo.  Haut.,  70c. m.;  prix,  8f. 

Lucius  Verus,  buste  colossal  de  la  Villa  Borghdse.  Musde  des  Antiques,  HI,  bustes, 
pi.  6.  Haut.,  lm.  30c  m. ; prix.  40f. 

Vitellius.  Ciarac,  pi.  1106,  n.  72.  Haut.,  62c. m. ; prix,  5f. 


LX.  — BUSTES  MODERXES. 

Caryatide,  par  Jean  Goujon.  Haut.,  70c.m.;  prix,  12f. 

Milou  de  Crotone,  par  Pierre  Puget.  Haut.,  65c.m. ; prix,  lOf. 

Jeune  Femme  incounue,  marbre  du  xve  siecle  (Louvre,  n.  79).  Haut.,  50c.m.;  prix, 
5f. 

Enfant,  par  Germain  Pilon.  Ciarac,  Musde  de  Sculpture,  pi.  1116,  n.  3533.  Haut,, 
32c.m.;  prix.  2f. 

Louis  XII,  par  Laurent  de  Mugiano.  Haut , 61c.m. ; prix,  6f. 

Francois  I«.  bronze  de  l’Ecole  franfaise  du  xvi'  siecle.  Haut.,  90c.m. ; larg.,  72c.m. ; 
prix  30f. 

Henri  i I,  par  Germain  Pilon.  Haut.,  77c. ra. ; prix,  20f. 

Henri  II  nustc  attribud  h Jean  Goujon.  Haut.,  80c.m.;  prix.  30f. 

Charles  IX.  par  Germain  Pilon,  1568.  Haut.,  77c. m. ; prix,  25f. 

Henri  III.  par  Germain  Pilon.  Haut.,  77c.m.;  prix,  25f. 

Henri  IV.  Haut..  00c.m. ; prix.  20f. 

Henri  IV,  attribue  a Barth61emy  Prieur.  Ciarac,  pi.  1119,  n.  3545.  Haut.,  80c.m.; 
prix,  25f. 

Henri  IV.  buste  avec  un  bras.  Haut.,  70c  m. ; prix,  25f. 

Louis  XIII  par  Simon  Guillain.  Ciarac,  pi.  1122,  n. 3564.  Haut.,  lm.;  prix.  25f. 
Louis  XIV  enfant,  par  Simon  Guillain.  Ciarac,  pi.  364,  n 2611.  Haut.,  60c.m. ; 
prix.  20f. 

Louis  XV.  Ciarac,  pi.  1124.  n.  3569.  Haut.,  70c.m.;  prix,  20f. 

Louis  XV.  Haut , Ira  ; prix,  30f. 

Marie- Antoinette.  Haut..  90c.m. ; prix.  20f. 

Napoleon  I",  par  Houdon.  Haut.,  76c.m. ; prix,  15f. 

Beatrix  d’Estc,  marbre  du  xv'  sifeele,  attribue  a Desldcrio  de  Settignano.  Ciarac, 
pi.  1117,  n.  3537.  Haut.,  62c  m.;  prix.  8f. 

Diane  de  Poitiers.  Ciarac,  pi.  359,  n.  2600.  Haut..  80c.m.;  prix,  2Qf. 

Diane  dite  Diane  de  Poitiers,  par  Jean  Goujon.  Haut..  70c.m.;  prix,  lOf. 

Mme  du  Barry,  par  Pajou,  1773.  Haut.,  70c  m. ; prix.  lOf. 

Boileau-Despreaux.  par  Girardon.  Ciarac,  pi.  1122,  n.  3567.  Haut.,  90c.m. ; prix,  25t 
Bossuet,  par  A.  Coyzevox.  Ciarac.  pi.  1123,  n.  3560'.  Haut.,  75c.m.;  prix,  15f. 


APPENDIX  II. 


349 


Buffon,  par  Pajou,  1773.  Clarac.  pi.  1123,  n.  356S.  Haut.,  S0c.ro. : prix,  15f. 
L’amlral  de  Chabot,  par  Jean  Cousin.  Clarac,  pi.  358,  n.  2601.  Haut.,  80c.m.; 
prix,  12f. 

Jean-Baptiste  Colbert,  par  Michel  Anguier.  Clarac.pl.  1121,  n.  3557.  Haut..  85c.m. ; 
prix.  25f. 

fidouard  Colbert  (frere  du  ministre),  par  Desjardins.  Clarac,  pi.  1121,  n.  3558. 
Haut.,  lm,  5c  m. ; prix,  30f. 

L’amiral  de  Coligny,  par  Jean  Goujon.  Clarac,  pi.  1120,  n.  3553.  Haut.,  70e.m. ; 
prix,  25f. 

Conde.  brouze  du  xviis  sifecle.  Clarac,  pi.  1122,  n.  3563.  Haut.,  90c.m. ; prix,  25f. 
Pierre  Corneille.  Haul.,  90c. m.;  prix,  25f. 

Thomas  Corneille.  Haut.,  90c. m.  • prix,  25f. 

Coy ze vox,  par  lui-mene.  Clarac,  pi.  1123,  n.  3560d.  Haut.,  67c. m. ; prix,  15f. 
Cuvier.  Haut  . 85c.m.;  prix,  30f. 

Jacques-Louis  David,  par  Rude,  1833.  Clarac,  pi.  1134,  n.  3637.  Haut.,  8Sc.m. . 
prix.  30f. 

Philibert  de  l’Orme,  bronze  du  xvi®  sibele.  Clarac,  pi.  1129,  n.  3605.  Haut.,  SOc.m.  ; 
prix.  lOf. 

Descartes.  Haut.,  8Sc.m. ; prix,  20f. 

Christophe  de  Thou,  ecole  franqaise  du  xvie  siecle.  Clarac,  pi.  1120,  n.  3551.  Haut., 
70c  m ; prix,  20f. 

Du  Couedic,  capitaine  de  vaisseau,  par  Bougron,  1830.  Clarac,  pi.  1125s,  n.  3574. 
Haut.,  90em.;  prix.  25f. 

Fenelon.  Clarac,  pi.  1.22.  n.  35601’.  Haut..  lm  ; prix,  25f. 

Comte  de  For'oin.  chef  d’escadre,  par  Petitot,  1822.  Haut.,  97e.m.;  prix,  25f. 

Comte  de  Forbin.  direeteur  des  Musees  du  Louvre,  par  Ramus.  Clarac,  pi.  1136,  n. 

3653.  Haut , lm  ; prix,  12f. 

Franklin.  Haut.,  65c. m ; prix.  lOf. 

Martin  Freminet,  peintre.  Clarac.  pi.  1119.  n.  354S.  Haut..  49c  m.;  prix,  20f, 
Franqois  Gerard,  par  Pradier.  Clarac  pi.  1135,  n.  3645.  Haut.,  90cm.;  prix,  30f. 
Girodet-Trioson.  par  Roman.  Clarac.  pi.  1135.  n.  3644  Haut..  79c  m. ; prix,  30f. 
Gluck,  par  Fratici.i  fils.  Clarac,  pi.  1123.  n 3556*.  Haut..  80c.m  ; prix,  20f. 

Jean  Goujon.  Clarac.  pi.  1120,  n.  3552.  Haut..  80c.m  ; prix.  20f. 

Le  baron  Gros.  par  Debay  pere.  Clarac,  p).  1135.  n 3513.  Haut..  S4c.m. ; prix,  30f. 
Jean  de  Bologne,  buste  attribue  a Pierre  Franqueville.  Clarac,  pi.  1119,  n.  3546. 

Haut  . 70c  m.;  prix.  lOf. 

Bernard  Jussiea.  Haut.,  Soc.m.;  prix,  30f. 

Antoinc-Laurent  Jussieu.  Haut..  70c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

Lacepede.  Haut.,  60c  m.;  prix.  lOf. 

La  Fontaine.  Haut..  Soc.m.;  prix.  20f. 

Lamoignon.  Haut..  85c.m.;  prix.  25f. 

Comte  de  Lamothe-Piquet,  par  Brion,  1S23.  Clarac,  pi.  1125s,  n.  3574s.  Haut., 
75c. m. ; prix,  20f. 

Laperouse.  navigateur,  par  Rude,  1828.  Clarac,  pi.  1125s,  n.  3574b.  Haut.,  80e.m.; 
prix.  30f. 

Charles  Le  Brun,  par  Coyzevox,  1679.  Clarac.  pi.  1133,  u.  3630.  Haut.,  85c. m.  ; 
prix.  25f. 

Le  Hdtre,  par  Gourdel.  Clarac,  pi.  1136.  u.  3647.  Haut.,  85c.m. ; prix.  25f. 

Olivier  Le  Febvre,  seigneur  d'Ormesson,  buste  attribue  a Ponce.  Clarac.  pi.  1119, 
n.  3547.  Haut.,  48c. m. ; prix.  lOf. 

Eustaehe  Lesueur.  par  Roland.  IS06.  Haut.,  lm  ; prix,  30f. 

Linnb.  Haut.,  80c. m. ; prix,  20f. 

Louvois,  par  Desjardins.  Clarac,  pi.  1119.  n.  3550.  Haut.,  SOc.m. ; prix,  25f. 

Ln'lli.  Haut.,  90c.m. ; prix.  25f. 

Mansart,  par  Lemoyne.  1705.  Clarac.  pi.  1123,  n.  3568.  Haut.,  lm.  10c.m.:  prix,  40f. 
Maurice,  comte  de  Saxe,  mardchal  de  France,  par  Pig. tile.  Haut.,  80c  m. ; prix,  20f. 
Mazarin,  par  Coyzevox.  Clarac.  pi  1122.  n.  3560s.  Haut..  80c  m : prix.  20f. 

Pierre  Mignard,  par  Coyzevox.  Clarac.  pi.  1132.  n.  3623.  Haut..  7Sc.m  ; prix,  20f. 
Peiresc.  par  Franein  fils.  Clarac,  pi.  1120,  n.  556.  Unit  . 67c. m. ; prix,  20f. 

Le  Primatice,  par  Foyatier,  1826.  Clarac,  pi.  1129,  n.  3607.  Haut.,  5Se.m.;  prix,  lOf. 
Jean  Racine.  Haut..  80c. ra.;  prix,  20f. 

Reaumur.  Haut.,  70c.m. ; prix,  lOf. 

Richelieu,  par  Coyzevox.  Clarac,  pi.  1119.  n.  3549.  Haut., 84cm.;  prix,  25f. 
Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  par  Houdon,  1778.  Haut.,  4oc.m. ; prix.  lOf 
Pierre  Seguier.  chancelier  de  France,  bronze  attribue  a Jacques  Sarrazin.  Clarac, 
pi.  1120,  n.  3554.  Haut.,  72  c m.;  prix.  20f. 

8oufflot,  par  Prevot.  Clarac,  pi.  1125,  n.  3566s.  Haut.,  63c.m. ; prix,  20f. 

X.  — TETES. 

Antonin  le  Pieux.  Mus^e  des  Antiques,  H,  85.  Haut.,  55c.m. ; prix,  12f. 

Centaures  (<leux).  des  metopes  du  Parthenon  (Musee  Britannique).  Haut.,  33c.ra.; 
prix,  3f.  Haut.,  43c. m.;  prix,  of. 


350 


APPENDIX  II. 


Claude,  bronze  du  Louvre.  Musee  des  Antiques,  III,  bustes,  pi.  5.  Haut.,  47c.m. ; 
prix.  Of. 

Femme  voilee  (Louvre,  salle  de  la  Psyehb).  Haut.,  30c.m. ; prix,  3f. 

Femme  frisOe,  bronze  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  40c. m. ; prix,  5f. 

Inconnu,  marbre  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  48c  m. ; prix,  3f. 

JupiterTrophonius,  dit  Jupiter  Talleyrand.  Clarae,  pi.  1086,  n.2722®.  Haut.,  42c.m.; 
prix.  6f. 

Ptolemee,  fils  de  Juba,  roi  de  Mauritania  (Musee  d’Afrique).  Clarae,  pi.  1093,  n. 
3487f.  Haut.,  35e.m. ; prix,  4f. 

Le  Rdmouleur  (Arrotino).  du  Musie  de  Florence.  Haut.,  40c.m.;  prix,  5f. 

Enfant  (Lcole  florentine).  Haut.,  13c.m.;  prix,  2f. 


XI.— MASQUES. 

Apollon  du  Belvedere.  Prix,  3f. 

Apoilon  dit  l’Espagne.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  74.  Prix,  50f. 
Jupiter.  Prix,  if.  50c. 

J upiter  d’Otricoii,  au  Vatican.  Prix,  8f. 

Lueilln.  masque  colossal  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  lm. ; prix,  SOf. 
Omphale  Albani.  Prix,  3f. 

Dieu  Marin  dit  Paidmon.  Prix,  If.  50c. 

Psyche  du  Musee  de  Naples.  Prix,  If.  50c. 

S.ipho  du  Capitole.  Prix,  If.  5'Jc. 

Thueydide.  Musee  des  Antiques,  III.  bustes.  pi.  4.  Prix,  If.  50c. 
Venus  d’Arles.  Prix,  2f. 

Venus  de  Versailles  dite  Genetrix.  Prix,  If.  50c. 

Venus  de  Medicis.  Prix,  If.  50c. 

V6nus  de  Milo.  Prix,  2f. 

Prisonnier,  par  Michel-Ange.  Prix,  3f. 


XII.  — ANIMAUX. 

Tetcs  des  chevaux  d’Hypdrion  et  de  la  Xuit  eur  le  fronton  du  Parthenon  (Muede 
Britanuique).  Prix,  chacune,  12f. 

Chien  Borghese.  Clarae,  pi.  350,  n.  216.  Haut..  57c. m. ; prix,  25f. 

Lion  assyrien  du  palais  royal  de  Khorsabad.  Larg.,  41c. m.;  prix,  4f. 

Panthdre  baebique.  Haut.,  lOc.m  ; prix,  2f.  50c. 

Chien  couchd,  par  Giraud.  Haut.,  50c.m. ; prix,  25f. 

Lions  du  jurdin  des  Tuileries,  par  Barye.  Haut.,  2m.;  prix,  250f.  Haut.,  lm. 
20c. m. ; prix.  200f. 

XIII.  — MEMBRES  DETACHES. 

Achille  Borghbse,  2 bras.  Prix.  cliacun.  5f.  50c. 

Antlnous  du  Vatican,  2 bras.  Prix,  cliacun,  6f. 

L’Enfant  Bacchus  (du  groupe  dit  Faune  it  i’Enfant),  2 jambes  et  1 bras.  Prix,  la 
piece.  If. 

Combattant  grcc  dit  le  Gladiateur  Borgh&se,  2 bras.  Prix,  chacun,  2f. 

Idem.  2 jambes.  Prix,  chacune.  3f. 

Idem.  2 pieds.  Prix,  chacun,  If.  50c. 

Diane  de  Versailles,  2 jambes  Prix,  chacune,  4f. 

Idem.  2 pieds.  Prix,  cliacun,  2f. 

Hermaphrodite  Borghbse.  2 pieds.  Prix,  chacun,  50c. 

Laocodn,  1 bras.  Prix,  6f. 

Idem.  1 cuisse,  2 jambes,  et  1 genou.  Prix,  la  pifece,  3f. 

Idem.  2 pieds.  Prix,  chacun.  If.  50c. 

Marsyas,  2 pieds.  Prix,  cliacun,  If.  50c. 

Mercure.  dit  Germanicus.  1 bras.  Prix,  of. 

Idem.  2 jambes.  Prix,  chacune,  3f. 

Idem  2 pieds  Prix,  chacun.  If.  50c. 

Mercure  (lit  Jason,  1 jambe.  Prix,  3f. 

Siiene  ciit  Faune  a i’Enfant  2 jambes.  Prix,  chacune,  3f. 

Idem.  2 pieds.  Prix.  chacun,  75c. 

Venus  de  Medicis.  2 bras.  Prix.  chacun,  2f. 

Idem.  2 jambes.  Prix.  chacune.  3f. 

Milon  de  Orotone.  par  Pierre  Puget,  2 jambes.  Prix,  chacune,  5f. 

Idem.  Patte  du  lion.  Prix,  2f. 

Mo'ise,  par  Michel-Ange,  1 bras.  Prix.  Sf. 

Prisonnier,  par  Michel-Ange,  bras  replie.  Prix.  6f. 

Jeune  Prisonnier,  par  Michel-Ange,  2 bras.  Prix,  chacun,  4f. 

Idem.  2 jambes.  Prix,  chacune,  5f. 


APPENDIX  II. 


351 


XIV.  — BAS-RELIEFS  ANTIQUES. 

A.  RELIEFS  EGYPTIENS. 

Le  Pharaon  Snofrou  terrassant  un  homrae  de  race  asiatique  (relief  provenant  du  mont 
Sinai).  Haut.,  lm.;  larg.,  40c. m. ; prix,  lOf. 

B.  RELIEFS  A8SYRIENS. 

I.  Du  palais  royal  de  Khorsabad. 

Taureaux  adds  a face  humaine  (trois).  Haut.,  4m.  20c. m . ; prix,  chacnn,  500f. 
Divinite  tenant  une  corbeille  et  une  pomme  de  pin.  Haut.,  83c. m.;  prix,  lOf. 
Diviuite  a tete  d’aigle.  Haut.,  lm.  2c. m. ; prix,  lOf. 

Pretre  portant  une  tige  de  pavot.  Haut.,  95c.m. ; prix,  lOf. 

II.  Du  palais  royal  de  Ninive. 

Sardanapale  HI.  tuant  des  lions.  Haut.,  lm.;  larg.,  5m.;  prix,  20f. 

Sardanapale  V,  dans  son  char.  Haut.,  lm  20c. ra.;  larg.,  80c. m. ; prix,  lOf. 
Tributaires  conduisant  des  bceufs.  Haut.,  lm  50c. m.;  larg.,  lm.  50c. m. ; prix,  20f. 
G-uerriers  dans  leurs  chars.  Haut.,  lm.  20c.m. ; larg.,  80e.m.;  prix,  lOf. 

Sidge  d’une  ville.  Haut.,  lm.;  larg.,  8m.;  prix,  40f. 

Fragment  d’un  homme  tenant  deux  ehevaux.  Haut.,  50c. m. ; prix,  4f. 

C.  BAS-RELIEFS  GRECS  ET  RO MAINS. 

Agamemnon,  Epdus.  et  le  hdraut  Talthybius,  relief  de  8amothrace.  Clarac,  pi.  116, 
n.  238.  Haut.,  46c. m ; larg.,  45c. m ; prix,  3f. 

Combat  d’Amazones,  sarcophage  de  Salonique.  Clarac,  pi.  117%  n.  232“.  Haut., 
78c. m. ; larg,,  2m.  53c  m. ; prix,  60f. 

Apollon,  Diane,  et  Latone  devant  une  idole,  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  bas-reliefs, 
pi.  26,  9.  Haut  , 58c. m ; larg.,  58c  m. ; prix.  4f. 

Bas-relief  du  temple  d’Assos  en  Mysie  (scdne  du  Iiepas),  Clarac,  pi.  116%  n.  238“. 
Haut.,  80c.m. ; larg.,  2m.;  prix,  40f. 

Bacchante.  Musde  des  Antiques,  HI.  pi.  10,  7 Haut.,  65c. m. ; larg.,  44c. m.;  prix.  6f. 
Bacchante  enfureur.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  75.  Haut  , 50c  in  ; larg., 32c. m. ; prix,3f. 
Bacchus  et  Ariadne,  camde  du  Louvre.  Haut.,  43c. m.;  larg,,  54c  m. ; prix.  3f. 

Tdte  de  Bmuf  (prise  sur  la  colonne  Trajane).  Haut  , 30c. m. ; larg.,  45c.m. ; prix,  If. 
Combat  de  Centaures,frise  du  tempie  de  Phigalie.  Haut.,  lm.  30c.m  ; larg.,  22c. m. ; 
prix,  40f. 

Danseuses.  Musde  des  Antiques,  II,  97.  Haut.,  75c. m. ; larg.,  lm.  87c. m. ; prix,  40f. 
Diane,  medaillon  d’un  autel  Borghdse.  Musde  des  Antiques,  IH,  autels,  pi.  4. 
Haut.,  40c  m ; prix,  5f. 

Invocation  a Esculape  pour  une  femme  et  un  enfant  malades.  Haut.,  48c  m.;  larg., 
90c  m ; prix,  lOf. 

Faune  chasseur.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  81.  Haut.,  lm.  78c.m.;  larg.,  lm.  17c.m. ; 
prix,  30f. 

Faune  dansant.  Musee  des  Antiques,  HI,  pi.  10,6.  Haut.,  45c. m, ; larg.,  30c. m ; 
prix.  3f. 

Femme  appuyee  sur  un  cippe.  Clarac,  pi.  180,  d.  334.  Haut.,  67c. m. ; larg.,  73e.m. ; 
prix,  6f. 

Femme  appuyde  sur  un  vase,  bas-relief  sdpulcral  trouvd  a Cherchell.  Gerhard, 
Denkmaler,  1863,  pi.  166.  Haut.,  3oc,m  ; larg.,  33c. m.;  prix,  3f. 

Deux  Griffons.  Clarac.pl  193.  n.  55.  Haut.,  73cm.;  larg.,  2m.  I8c.m. ; prix,  40f. 
Hercule  enlevant  le  trepied  d’ Apollon.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  26,  2.  Haut., 
52c. m.;  larg..  63c. m.;  prix,  If. 

Invocation  a Jupiter.  Bas-relief  trouvd  a Gortyne  en  Crete.  Clarac,  pi.  224“.  n.  36“. 
Haut.,  39c. m ; larg.,  36c. m. ; prix,  3f. 

Frise  du  monument  choragique  de  Lysicrate,  dit  Lanterne  de  Detnosthene,  dix-sept 
reliefs.  Haut.,  26c. m ; prix,  chaciin.  3f. 

T§te  de  Minerve  (salle  de  l’Aruspice  au  Louvre).  Haut.,  22c.m.;  larg.,  17c. m.; 
prix.  If.  50c. 

Les  Muses,  sarcophage.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  78.  Haut.,  61e.m  ; larg.,  2m. 
7cm.;  prix,  60f. 

Deux  Musiciennes.  Musde  des  Antiques,  IH,  pi.  24, 6.  Haut.,  86c. m. ; larg.,  58c.m. ; 
prix,  18f. 

Metopes  du  temple  de  Jupiter  ti  Olympie. 

a.  Pallas  assise.  Clarac,  pi.  195b,  n.  211b.  Haut.,  lm.  59e.m.;  larg.,  87c. m; 

prix,  30f. 

b.  Hercule  arretant  le  Taureau  de  Crdte.  Clarac,  pi.  195b,  n.  211“.  Haut.,  lm. 

15c.m.;  larg.,  lm.  54c.m.;  prix,  40f. 


352 


APPENDIX  II. 


Bas-reliefs  du  Parthenon. 

I.  Metope  du  Louvre.  Cenlaure  arrStant  une  femme  (marbre  Choiseul).  Musee 
des  Antiques,  IH,  11.  Haut.,  lm.  41c. m. ; larg  , lm.  34c. m. ; prix,  60f. 

II.  Metope  du  Musee  Britannique.  Centaure  dtranglant  un  jeune  Lapithe. 
Haut.,  83c.m  ; larg..  90c. m. ; prix,  40f. 

m.  Frise  du  Louvre.  Musde  des  Antiques,  H,  96.  Haut.,  62c. m. ; larg.,  2m. 
7c.m  ; prix  40f. 

IV.  Frise  du  Musee  Britannique,  vingt  pieces.  Prix.  400f. 

b.  Deux  cavaliers.  Tresor  de  Glyptique.  pi.  1,  4 (deuxihme  groupe).  Haut., 

lm.8c.rn.;  larg..  lm.  55c.m. ; prix,  30f. 

c.  fiphhbes  conduisant  Ieurs  chevaux.  Tresor.  pi.  2,  3.  Haut.,  lm.  7c.m. ; larg. 

lm.  56c  m. ; prix.  39f 

d.  Deux  cavaliers.  Tresor.  pi.  1,  3.  Haut.,  lm.  8c. m.;  larg.,  lm.  50c. m.;  prix, 

30f. 

e.  Deux  cavaliers  Tresor.  pi.  1,  2.  (Groupe  du  milieu.)  Haut.,  lm.  7c.m. ; 

larg  , lm  55c. m.;  prix,  30f. 

/.  Homme  frappant  un  cheval  qui  se  cabre.  Trdsor,  pi.  1,  3.  Haut.,  lm.  2c.m.; 
larg  . lm  39c.m.;  prix.  30f. 

g.  Quatrc  cavaliers.  Tresor.  pi.  2,  3.  Haut.,  lm.  3c. m. ; larg.,  lm.  24c.m. ; prix, 

30f. 

h.  Deux  cavaliers.  Tresor,  pi.  1,  1.  Haut.,  lm.  8c. m.;  larg.,  lm.  74c.m.;  prix, 

30f. 

i.  Deux  cavaliers  coiffes  du  pdtase.  Trdsor,  pi.  1,  4.  Haut.,  lm.  lOc.m. ; larg., 

lm  4Sc.m.;  prix.  30f. 

j.  Cavalier  casque.  Trdsor,  pi.  1,  3.  naut.,  lm.  8c. m.;  larg.,  lm.  2c.m.;  prix, 

20  f. 

k.  Cheval,  homme  barbu,  et  dphiibe.  Tresor,  pi.  1,  2.  Haut.,  lm.;  larg.,  lm. ; 

prix,  20f. 

l.  Le  jeune  firechthde  et  Pandrosos.  Haut.,  lm.  7c. m. ; larg.,  SSc.m. ; prix,  20 f. 

m.  Cheval  qui  frotte  ses  naseaux  contre  sa  jarabe.  Tresor,  pi.  2,  1.  Haut., 

lm  2c. m.;  larg.,  SSc.m. ; prix.  lof. 

n.  Jeune  homme  tenant  un  cheval.  Tresor,  pi.  1,  2.  Haut.,  lm.  9c.m.;  larg., 

90c.ru  ; prix,  15f. 

o.  Yieillard  s’appuyant  sur  un  baton,  et  jeune  homme  derridre  lui.  Tresor,  pi. 

10,3.  Haut.,  lm.  3c  m.;  larg  , 87c.m. ; prix  lof. 

p.  Deux  dphdbes  appuyds  1’un  sur  l’autre.  Tresor,  pi.  10,  3.  Haut.,  lm.  8c.m.; 

larg.,  90c  m. : prix.  15f. 

q.  Guerrier  remettant  sa  chaussure.  Trdsor,  pi.  1,  3.  Haut.,  lm.  4c.m  ; larg., 

47c.m.:  prix.  8f 

- r.  Cheval  et  jeune  homme  mettant  sa  chaussure.  Trdsor,  pi.  2.  3.  Haut..  lm. 
3c.m. ; larg  , 52c  m;  prix.  8f. 

s.  Jeune  homme.  Trdsor,  pi.  10,  3.  (Le  slxidme.)  Haut.,  lm.  2e.m.;  larg., 

47c. m. : prix,  Sf 

t.  Jeune  homme.  Trdsor,  pi.  2,  1.  (Le  premier.)  Haut..  lm.;  larg.,  44c.m.; 

prix,  Sf. 

u.  Jeune  homme  tenant  un  cheval.  Trdsor,  pi.  1,  2.  Haut.,  lm.  5c.m.;  larg., 

47c. m. ; prix.  8f. 

Bas-reliefs  des  Propvldes  d’Athdnes.  Deux  pieces  a 12ct  a 15  francs.  Haut.,45c.m.; 
larg  . 45c. m. ; prix,  27f. 

Quadriges  (deux),  reliefs  trouvds  it  Herculanum.  Haut..  75m. ; prix,  chacun,  3jf. 
Sacrifice  a Cdrds.  Musde  des  Autiques,  HI,  pi.  25.  Haut.,  55c  m. ; larg  , 60c  m. ; 
prix,  4f. 

Trone  de  Saturne.  Clarac,  pi.  218,  n.  10.  Haut.,  77c.m.;  larg.,  2m.  2c.m.;  prix,  60f. 
Metopes  du  Temple  de  Selinonte. 

a.  Persde  tuant  la  Gorgone.  Haut-,  lm.  lOc.m. ; larg..  lm.  10c  m. ; prix,  20f. 
ft.  Hercule  portant  les  Cercopes.  Haut.,  lm.  lOc.m. ; larg..  lm  lOc.m.,  prix, 20f. 
Taureau  attaque  par  un  lion.  Clarac,  pt.  223,  n.  189.  Haut.,  92c.m. ; larg.,  lm. 
12c. m.;  prix,  20f. 

Thdtis  invoquant  le  secours  de  Jupiter.  Musde  des  Antiques.  I,  75.  Haut.,  52c.m.; 
larg.,  59c. m. ; prix.  4f. 

Tibhre  sur  son  char  de  triomphe.  Grand  camde  de  Vienne.  Clarac.  pL  1053.  Haut., 
19c. m : larg.,  43e.m. ; prix.  2f. 

Thdmistocle  vaTnqueur.  Clarac.pl.  223,  n.  255.  Haut., 43c. m.;  larg.,  47c.m.;  prix,  4f. 

Metopes  du  Temple  de  Thisec.  reprdsentant  les  exploits  d' Hercule  et  le  combat  des 
Centaures  et  des  Lopithes. 

a.  Haut..  67c.m. ; larg.,  lm  8c. m. : prix.  20f. 

b.  Haut , 84e.m. ; larg.,  lm.  2c.m  ; prix,  20f. 

c.  Haut.,  83c. m.;  larg.,  lm.  15c.m.;  prix,  20f. 


APPENDIX  II. 


353 


d.  Haut.,  74c  m.;  larg.,  1m.  5c. m.;  prix.  15f. 

e.  Haut.,  78c.m. ; larg.,  82c.m. ; prix,  15f. 

/.  Haut.,  77c. m ; larg.,  92c. m ; prix,  15f. 

g.  Haut.,  76c  m. ; larg.,  77c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

h.  Haut.,  75c. m. ; larg..  78c. m. ; prix,  lof. 

i.  Haut.,  80c.ru. ; larg.,  80c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

j.  Haut.,  78c.m.;  larg.,  78c. m.;  prix,  15f. 

k.  naut.,  76c  m ; larg.,  41c .m. ; prix,  8f. 

l.  Haut , 77c.m. ; larg.,  47c. m.:  prix.  8f. 

Trajan  (t§te  prise  sur  la  eolonne  Trajane).  Haut..  26c. m.;  larg.,  20c.m.;  prix,  If, 
Ulysse  consultant  le  devin  TirOsias.  MusOe  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  23.  Haut., 
60c.m  ; larg.,  62c  m.;  prix.  5f. 

Vase  Albaui,  six  bas-reliefs.  Haut.,  32c  m ; larg  , 28c. m. ; prix,  chacun,  If. 

Vase  Borghbse.  Musde  des  Antiques,  I,  76,  77.  Haut.,  67c. m. 

a.  Siline  ivre  soutenu  par  un  faune.  Prix,  lOf. 

b.  Bacchante  aux  Oastagnettes.  Prix.  5f. 

c.  Satyrejouant  de  la  double  flute.  Prix,  5f. 

d.  Paune  et  Bacchante.  Prix,  lOf. 

e.  Joueuse  de  tambourin.  Prix,  5f. 

/.  Bacchus  appuyO  sur  une  joueuse  de  lyre.  Prix,  lOf. 

</  Satyre  dansant.  Prix,  5f. 

Victoire  et  Apollon.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III.  pi.  26,  6.  Haut.,  42e.m.;  larg., 
45c. m. ; prix,  4f. 

Victoire,  Apollon,  et  Diane.  HusOe  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  26,  5.  Haut.,  49c. m.; 
larg.,  61c. m. ; prix,  4f. 

Victoire,  Bacchus,  et  Diane.  Mus6e  des  Antiques,  in,  pi.  26,  3.  Haut.,  57c.m.; 
larg.,  63c. m ; prix,  6f. 

Trois  villes  personriiiiecs.  Clarac,  pi.  222,  n.  301.  Haut.,  91c. m.;  larg.,  82c.m. ; 
prix,  18f. 

Forges  de  Vulcain.  Musde  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  4,  1.  Haut.,  65c. m.;  larg.,  lm. 
3c. m. ; prix,  lOf. 

XV.— BAS-RELIEFS  MODERNES. 

Chemin^e  du  chdteau  de  Mennecy,  par  Germain  Pilon.  Hiut.,  4m.  62c. m.;  larg., 
2m.  54c  m. ; prix,  600f 

Descente  de  croix,  par  Daniel  de  Volterre.  Haut.,  79c. m. ; larg.,  lm.  95c  m. ; prix, 
40f. 

Descente  de  croix,  par  Germain  Pilon.  Haut..  48c. m. ; larg.,  81c. m. ; prix,  30f. 
Quatre  bas-reliefs  du  Tombeau  du  chancelier  Duprat  (mort  en  1535)  h la  eathddrale 
de  Sens. 

1 et  2,  haut.,  44c.m. ; larg  . lm.  75e.m. ; prix  chacun,  40f. 

3 et  4,  haut.,  44c  m. ; larg.,  74c, m. ; prix,  chacun,  20f. 

Les  quatre  Evangelistes  de  1’autel  du  chateau  d’ficoueu,  par  Jean  Goujon.  Haut., 
8l)c.m.;  larg.,  5m.;  prix,  80f. 

Sainte  Famille  (.Louvre,  n.  15).  Haut..  33c  m. ; larg  , 21c.m. ; prix,  3f. 

(Jinq  reliefs  de  la  Fontaine  des  Innocents,  par  Jean  Goujon.  Clarac,  pi.  231,  231“,  n. 
366  367,  368“. 

a.  Trois  nymphes.  Haut.,  73c  m ; larg.,  5m.  85c  m ; prix,  40f. 

b.  V6nus  Anadyomfene.  Haut.,  45c.m. ; larg.  26c. m. ; prix,  2f. 

c.  Nympho  de  Paris.  Haut.,  45c. m. ; larg.,  28cm.;  prix  2f. 

d.  Nymphe  de  la  Seine.  Haut.,  45c  m ; larg  , 26c.m  ; prix,  2f. 

e.  Nymphe  d’u  i autre  fleuve.  Haut..  45c  m ; larg.,  26c. m. ; prix,  2f. 

Fuite  en  ifigypte,  prise  sur  une  clieminOe  a Versailles.  Haut.,  28c  m. ; larg.,  57c. m. ; 
prix,  3f. 

Nymphe  de  Fontainebleau,  par  Benvenuto  Cellini.  Haut.,  2m.  5c.m.;  larg.,  4m. 
9c.m  ; prix,  600f. 

Le  Rbveil,  par  Fremyn  Roussel.  Haut.,  43c. m. ; larg..  44c.m.;  prix,  lOf. 
Roequencourt  (Andrd  Blondel  de),  contrdleur  geieral  des  finances,  mort  en  1558. 

Figure  couchde.  Brouze  de  Ponce.  Haut. , 73c. m. ; larg..  60c. m. ; prix,  20f. 
Suzanne  au  bain,  de  la  cheminde  de  Bruges.  Haut.,  48c. m.;  larg.,  75e.m.;  prix,  3f. 
Vie  du  mddeeln  Jdrome  de  la  Torre,  bronze  d’ Andrea  Riccio  (porte  de  la  salle  des 
Caryatides).  Clarac,  pi.  47  50. 

а.  Jdrorae  enseignant  la  m6decine.  Haut.,  49c. m. ; larg.,  37c.ra.;  prix.  15f. 

б.  Maladie  de  Jdrdme.  Haut,.,  49c  m. ; larg.,  37c  m. ; prix,  15f. 

c.  Sacrifice  a Esculape.  Haut.,  49cm.;  larg.,  37c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

d.  Mort  de  J6rome.  Haut.,  49c. in. ; larg.,  37c. ra. ; prix,  15f. 

e.  Fnndrailles.  Haut.,  49c.m. ; larg.,  37c. m. ; prix,  15f. 

/.  L’ame  de  Jerome  traverse  le  Styx.  Haut.,  49c. m. ; larg.,  37c.m. ; prix,  15f. 
g.  Les  Champs  illys^es.  Haut.,  49c. m.  ; larg,,  37c.m. ; prix,  15f. 

%.  RenommOe  de  jtirdme.  Haut.,  49c. m.;  larg,,  37c.m.;  prix,  15f. 


354 


APPENDIX  II. 


XVI. —INSCRIPTIONS. 

Inscriptions  cuneiformes  (Quatre),  au  Louvre,  n.  602,  606,  612,  613.  Prix,  cha- 
cune,  5f. 


XVn.  — AUTELS. 

Autel  Borghfese.  Haut.,  lm.  30c. m.;  prix,  70f. 

Autel  astronomique  des  douze  Dieux.  Hant.,  90c.ra.;  larg.,  42c. m.;  prix,  30f. 


XVin.  — CANDfiLABRES. 

Grand  cand&abre  compose  par  Piranesi.  Hustle  des  Antiques,  III  cand.  pi.  1, 
Clarac,  pi.  141,  n.  120.  Haut.,  3m.  58c  m.;  prix,  600f. 

Canddlabre  de  la  salle  de  la  Paix.  Mus6e  des  Antiques,  III,  pi.  3,  2.  Haut.  2m. 
20em.;  prix,  lOOf. 

Canddlabre  aux  Atlantes.  Clarac,  pi.  257,  n.  642.  Haut.,  2m.;  prix,  40f. 


XIX.  — VASES. 

Vase  Albani.  Haut.,  77c.m.;  prix,  50f. 

Vase  Borglihse.  Musee  des  Antiques,  I,  76,  77.  Haut.,  lm.  78c.m.;  prix,  200f. 
Vases  de  Marathon  (deux).  Clarac,  pi.  152,  n.  271,  272,  274.  Haut.,  45c. m. ; prix, 
chacun,  12f. 

Vase  aux  masques  bachiques.  Clarac,  pi  145,  n.  124.  Haut.,  79c.m. ; prix,  30f. 
Vase  de  Sosibius.  Musee  des  Antiques,  HI,  vases,  pi.  8.  Haut.,  75c.m. ; prix,  20f. 
Coupe,  dite  de  Benvenuto  Cellini.  Haut.,  25c.m.;  prix,  12f. 

Vase,  dit  do  Benvenuto  Cellini.  Clarac,  pi.  51,  2.  Haut.,  30c.m. ; prix,  15f. 

Vases  modernea  du  jardin  de  Versailles  (neuf).  Haut.  lm. ; prix,  chacun,  50f. 

XX.  — OBJETS  DIVERS. 

Trepied  moderne  en  marbre  rouge  antique.  Clarac,  pi.  261,  n.  652;  Haut.,  83c.m.; 
prix,  50f. 

Piddestal  docore  d’attributs  de  chasse  (jardin  de  Versailles).  Haut.,  lm.;  prix,  60f. 
Casque  d’Henri  IV.  Prix,  22f. 


Casts  not  included  in  either  of  the  previous  Lists,  but  which 

ARE  PROCURABLE  AT  THE  ADDRESSES  GIVEN. 

PARIS. 

Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Atelier  du  Haulage.  Address  M.  Desachy. 
Bas-Relief  from  Eleusis,  70f. 

4.  Bas-liellefa  from  the  Temple  of  Victory  at  Athens  (en  staffe),  95f. 


ROME. 


Casts  mag  be  ordered  from  Leopnldo  Malpieri  or  from  Giuseppe  Candiotti.  whose 
address  can  be  obtained  from  Messrs.  Hooker.  .1  laquay,  <f  Co.,  Bankers,  Piazza 
di  Spagna. 


Ludovis  Juno  (bust),  70f. 


Minerva  Medica,  200f. 
Pudicitia,  l8Sf. 

The  Athlete,  134f. 
Aristides,  161f. 

Sophocles,  16  if. 

Venus  of  the  Capitol,  188f. 


MALPIERI. 

Sophocles,  200f. 

CANDIOTTI. 

Faustina,  290f. 
Amazon.  215f. 

Dying  Gladiator,  400f. 
Caryatide,  300f. 
Euripides,  250f. 


DRESDEN. 

Royal  Museum  of  Casts.  Address  Dr.  Hermann  Hettner. 
The  Tripods  with  Reliefs.  30  thalers : 120f. 

The  Dresden  Pailas,  25  thalers;  llOf. 


APPENDIX  II. 


355 


PROCURABLE  AT  MUNICH. 

Information  concerning  them  may  be  obtained  of  Professor  Mozet,  of  the  Royal 
Poly  technical  School,  Munich. 

1,  5.  Figures  from  the  Eastern  Pediment  of  the  Temple  at  iEgina,  172f. 

6,  15.  Ten  figures  from  the  Western  Pediment  of  the  Temple  at  MSgina,  172f. 

Doric  Capita]  from  the  Temple  of  HCgina,  43f. 

Bas-Relief.  The  Marriage  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite,  643f. 

The  Rondanini  Medusa  (superb),  54f. 

Ilioneus,  140f. 

Applications  for  the  purchase  of  Casts  should  be  addressed  to  Professor  Mozet, 
Directorium  der  Konigl  Polytechnichen  Schule,  Miinchen,  Bayern. 


356 


APPENDIX  III. 


APPENDIX  III. 


EXAMINATION  PAP  EES. 

The  examples  of  examination  papers  given  here  are  illustrations  of  the 
graded  system  of  the  English  Science  and  Art  Department,  in  the  Art  Sec- 
tion. The  standard  for  each  grade  is  considerably  lower  than  that  at  pres- 
ent applied,  the  papers  being  all  of  dates  previous  to  1870.  It  is  therefore 
more  applicable  to  this  country,  where  the  subject  has  not  been  taught  so 
long  as  in  England.  The  grades  adopted  — first,  second,  and  third  — are 
convenient  and  simple.  The  first  grade  should  apply  to  all  school  children 
up  to  fifteen  years  of  age;  the  second' to  all  above  that  age,  to  students  of 
night  classes,  and  the  teachers  of  the  common  schools;  the  third  to  profes- 
sional teachers  of  art,  or  professional  artists,  architects,  or  engineers.  Of 
the  third  grade  there  are  six  groups  or  certificates  granted  in  England ; the 
specimens  here  given  being  the  first  or  most  elementary  group. 


EXAMINATIONS  BY  THE  ENGLISH  SCIENCE  AND  ART 
DEPARTMENT. 

Specimens  of  the  examination  papers  for  the  first  certificate  of  third 
grade)  — the  elementary  certificate, — which  must  be  held  by  masters  or 
mistresses  of  schools  of  art.  In  addition  to  these  papers,  the  examination 
includes  also  a chalk-drawing,  in  two  hours,  from  a cast  of  foliage,  and  a 
drawing  of  models  in  a group,  in  two  hours,  the  subject  for  1868  being  a 
chair  leaning  backwards  upon  a machine,  in  which  toothed  wheels  were 
visible. 


PERSPECTIVE  THEORY. 

February,  1868. 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  orthographic  and  perspective  projection? 

2.  Upon  what  laws  in  optics  arc  tile  principles  of  perspective  founded  ? 

3.  Give  reasons  for  or  against  any  change  bv  curvature  or  otherwise  in  long  hori- 

zontal or  vertical  lines  parallel  to  the  picture. 

4.  In  order  to  be  able  to  measure  right  lines  in  a given  plane,  what  conditions  are 

necessarily  predetermined? 

6.  By  how  many  methods  could  you  determine  the  geometric  lengths  of  lines  In 
horizontal  planes,  the  necessary  conditions  being  given? 

6.  What  is  the  relation  of  a vanishing  plane  to  the  eye? 

7.  Is  the  perspective  representation  of  a circle  upon  an  oblique  plane  invariably  a 

perfect  ellipse? 

8.  Is  tlie  distance  of  the  spectator  from  the  picture  arbitrarily  fixed,  or  would  any 

change  of  distance  necessarily  tend  to  render  the  drawing  inaccurate  ? 

9.  Under  what  circumstances  must  a horizontal  line  be  represented  by  a vertical 

one  ? 

10.  Explain  the  use  of  proportional  measuring  points. 

Two  hours  allowed. 


APPENDIX  III. 


357 


PERSPECTIVE. 

February,  I8fi8. 

These  problems  are  to  be  worked  to  a scale  of  one-half  inch  to  the  foot,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  spectator  from  the  picture  biing  in  each  case  thirteen  feet,  and  the 
ground-plane  five  feet  below  the  eye. 

1.  A right  cylinder  ten  feet  long  and  six  feet  in  diameter  lies  upon  its  side  on  the 

ground-plane.  The  visible  base  is  in  a vertical  plane  at  an  angle  of  45°  with 
the  picture,  towards  the  left  hand,  and  touches  the  ground-plane  three  feet 
within  the  picture,  and  two  feet  on  the  left  of  the  spectator.  Give  its  per- 
spective representation. 

2.  A plane  making  an  angle  of  30°  with  the  ground-plane  intersects  it  in  a line 

inclined  towards  the  left  hand,  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  picture-plane.  This 
line  intersects  the  picture  at  a point,  A.  one  foot  to  the  right  of  the  spectator. 
Find  a point,  B,  upon  the  intersecting  line  of  the  oblique  plane  with  the 
ground-plane,  four  feet  from  point  A ; and  another  point,  C,  ten  feet  from 
point  A,  upon  this  line.  The  line  BC  is  one  edge  of  a cube  resting  upon  the 
inclined  plane.  Give  a perspective  representation  of  the  solid. 

3.  A line  upon  the  ground  plane  touches  the  base-line  of  the  picture  at  a point,  A, 

two  feet  to  the  right  of  toe  line  of  direction,  and  inclines  towards  the  left 
hand  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  picture  : find  a point,  B,  upon  this  line,  two 
feet  from  point  A,  and  another  point,  C.  eight  feet  from  point  A.  The  line  BC 
is  one  edge  of  a solid  wedge,  the  base  of  which  rests  upon  the  ground-plane, 
and  is  square.  Three  sides  of  the  solid  are  vertical,  and  its  upper  surface 
makes  an  angle  of  00°  with  the  ground-plane  from  the  line  BC.  Complete  its 
perspective  representation  without  the  use  of  plan  or  elevation,  and  give  the 
vanishing  line  of  the  oblique  plane. 

Two  hours  allowed. 

ELEMENTARY  ARCHITECTURE. 

February,  1868. 

In  all  cases  add  the  names  of  the  parts.  Scale  at  pleasure,  but  always  to  be 
sent  up  with  the  drawings. 

1.  Show  by  drawings  the  various  joints  made  use  of  in  wood-work. 

2.  Show  by  drawings  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms  : wall-plate,  pole-plate, 

tie  beam,  principal  rafter,  common  rafter,  purlins,  strut,  and  king-post. 

3.  Show  also  the  meaning  of  the  following:  bridging  and  binding  joists,  girder, 

and  ceiling  joist. 

4.  Give  a sectional  plan,  elevation,  and  vertical  section  of  a four-panelled  door, 

showing  details  of  framework. 

5.  Give  a sectional  plan,  elevation,  and  vertical  section  of  a window-frame 

arranged  for  sashes. 

Four  hours  allowed. 

GEOMETRY. 

February,  1868. 

1.  Find  a third  and  fourth  proportional  to  two  right  lines  of  respectively  three 

inches  and  two  inches  in  length. 

2.  Construct  a regular  pentagon  of  one  and  one-half  inches  side,  and  an  equi- 

lateral triangle  containing  the  same  area. 

3.  Give  a general  method  of  inscribing  a regular  polygon  within  a circle,  apply- 

ing it  to  a nonagon  in  a circle  of  one  and  one-half  inches  radius. 

4.  Give  a general  method  of  constructing  a polygon  upon  a given  line,  applying 

it  to  a heptagon  of  one  and  one-halt  inches  side. 

5.  Within  the  last  polygon  (fig.  4)  place  another  heptagon,  having  sides  of  one 

inch  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  first  polygon,  and  having  the  same  centre. 

6.  Describe  a circle  of  three  inches  diameter,  and  without  it  a s cond  circle  of  one 

inch  diameter,  the  circumference  of  which  will  be  one-half  inch  from  the  first 
circle  at  its  nearest  point..  Describe  a third  circle  of  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  radius,  which  shall  be  tangential  to  these  two. 

7.  The  transverse  diameter  of  an  ellipse  is  five  inches  long,  its  conjugate  diameter 

being  equal  to  four-sixths  of  the  length  of  the  transverse.  Draw  the  curve 
of  the  ellipse  by  means  of  intersecting  arcs  of  circles. 

8.  Two  similar  t.  mngles  have  bases  of  two  inches,  and  one  and  one-half  inches 

length,  respectively.  Construct  a similar  triangle  of  equal  area  to  these  two. 
y.  Draw  a cinquefoil  of  tengent.ial  arcs  of  -ircles  of  one-half  inch  radius. 

10.  Construct  a triangle,  the  base  of  which  is  one  inch  long,  the  altitude  two 
inches,  and  one  side  of  which  is  three  inches  long. 

Two  hours  allowed. 


858 


APPENDIX  III. 


ELEMENTARY  MECHANICAL. 

February,  1868. 

1.  A pyramid,  base  hexagonal,  of  oue-inch  side,  four  Inches  high,  is  to  be  repre- 

sented by  a plan  and  elevation. 

(а)  When  one  edge  is  vertical. 

(б)  When  the  axis  is  inclined  10°. 

(c)  When  one  edge  is  horizontal,  the  adjacent  faces  being  equally  inclined. 

2.  A cone  four  inches  high,  standing  on  its  base,  the  diameter  ot  which  is  two 

inches,  is  cut  completely  through  its  curved  surface  by  a plane  inclined  40’. 
Draw  it  in  plan  and  elevation,  and  show  the  true  form  of  the  section.  Show 
also  the  shape  of  the  paper  required  to  wrap  exactly  round  the  part  of  the 
cone  below  the  section. 

3.  A cylinder,  nine  inches  long,  diameter  of  base  six  inches,  rests  on  the  ground; 

and  on  it  is  placed  a brick  nine  inches  by  four  and  a half  by  three  inches,  with 
one  of  the  short  edges  of  a face  on  tlie  ground,  the  face  being  inclined  45°. 
Draw  plan  and  elevation;  the  elevation  being  drawn  on  a plane  taken  at  30°, 
with  the  horizontal  edges.  Scale  one-third. 

4.  A prism,  with  square  base  of  two-inch  sides,  edges  five  inches  and  vertical,  one 

face  inclined  30°  to  the  vertical  plane,  is  intersected  by  another  prism  of  the 
same  dimensions,  the  edges  of  which  are  horizontal,  and  inclined  40°  to  the 
vertical  plane.  One  face  of  the  horizontal  prism  is  inclined  30°  to  the  hori- 
zontal plane,  and  its  axis  is  two  inches  high,  and  five  inches  from  the  axis  of 
the  other  prism.  Draw  plau  and  elevation. 

Four  hours  allowed. 


The  following  specimens  of  art-exaiuination  papers,  given  at  South 
Kensington,  will  indicate  some  features  of  the  standard  of  knowledge 
required  to  pass  in  the  several  groups.  They  are  not  selected  papers,  but 
what  I happen  to  have  by  me.  The  standard  in  every  subject  has  been 
raised  very  much  within  the  last  few  years. 

ELEMENTARY  ARC11ITECTURE. 

Group  1.  — First  Certificate.  — February,  1871. 

1.  Draw  a Grecian  Doric  entablature  three  feet  in  depth,  and  compare  it  with  an 

Ionic  entablature  of  the  same  depth,  pointing  out  the  chief  differences  in  the 
mouldings  and  enrichments. 

2.  What  were  the  chief  changes  effected  in  the  Grecian  orders  of  architecture  under 

the  Roman  influence? 

3.  Draw  the  angle  of  a pediment  showiug  the  method  in  which  the  mouldings  of 

tlie  corona  and  bed-mould  are  returned  and  mitred. 

4.  Give  a sketch  of  an  early  English  capital  and  base  with  any  details  you  may 

remember  of  the  characteristic  foliage  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

5.  Distinguish  between  the  early  and  late  decorated  styles  of  English  Gothic  archi- 

tecture, by  a comparison  of  the  tracery  of  each  period. 

Four  hours  allowed  for  this  paper. 

Group  1.  — First  Certificate.  — February,  1872. 

1.  What  were  the  principal  mouldings  and  enrichments  used  in  the  Grecian  Doric 

and  Grecian  Ionic  orders. 

2.  Draw  a Roman  Doric  column  with  its  capital,  and  the  base  usually  found  in 

ancient  examples.  Show  also  an  Attic  base  fora  shaft  of  the  same  diameter, 
and  name  each  of  the  component  mouldings. 

3.  What  orders  among  the  ancients  and  at  the  time  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  art 

considered  to  be  the  best  authorities  upon  the  proportions  of  the  five  orders? 
Mention  any  of  their  works  you  can  remember. 

4.  Draw  in  section  and  elevation  a clustered  shaft  of  the  Decorated  Period,  with  its 

characteristic  base  mouldings. 

5.  8tate  what  were  the  chief  signs  of  the  decadence  of  English  Gothic  architecture, 

and  show  how  your  remarks  apply  to  Henry  Vil.’s.  chapel  or  any  similar 
building  of  the  Perpendicular  Period. 

Instruction.  — Except  when  a sketch  only  is  asked  for.  the  drawing  should  be  to 
scalei  — sUch  scale  to  be  clearly  indicated  against  each  question. 

Four  hours  allowed  for  this  paper. 


APPENDIX  III. 


359 


ARCHITECTURE. 

Group  6.  — Sixth  Certificate  (Paper  Work). 

1.  Give  a design  in  plan  and  section  of  a fire-proof  floor  of  Yorkshire  stone  laid  on 

14  brick  arches  turned  between  iron  girders;  the  whole  depth  of  the  floor  not 
to  exceed  two  feet. 

2.  Show  by  plan  and  sections  the  construction  of  a trough  gutter  between  two 

quarter-pitch  roofs,  carried  on  a nine-inch  wall,  the  gutter  to  be  forty  feet  long, 
and  the  proper  fall  to  be  indicated  on  a longitudinal  section. 

3.  It  is  required  to  construct  a stone  stair  4^  6^  wide  in  the  hall  of  a house.  The 

height  from  floor  to  floor  is  fifteen  feet,  and  it  is  necessary  to  provide  head- 
room  of  eight  feet  in  the  cellar  for  a door  under  the  hall  landing,  no  windows 
to  be  used,  the  stairs  to  have  eleven  inches  treads,  exclusive  of  nosing,  and  six 
and  one-haif  inches  rises.  The  space  available  is  ten  feet  wide,  with  a length 
of  twenty  feet,  measured  from  the  lowest  step  to  the  back  wall. 

4.  Give  examples  of  at  least  four  of  the  best  kinds  of  roofing  tiles,  and  show  by  plan 

and  two  sections  the  method  of  laying  each  description  of  tile.  State  also 
briefly  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  employing  each  particular  kind. 
Four  hours  allowed  for  this  paper. 

ADVANCED  ARCHITECTURE. 

Group  6.  — Sixth  Certificate  (Practice). 

Design  for  a Provincial  School  of  Art. 

1.  Plans,  elevations,  and  sections  are  required  for  a school  of  art  for  one  hundred 

students,  with  small  museum  attached. 

2.  Economy  must  enter  into  the  consideration  of  the  design,  as  the  sum  available  for 

the  work  is  only  £3,000. 

3.  All  designs  must  be  drawn  to  the  same  scale,  viz.,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  the 

foot,  and  colors  may  only  be  used  to  distinguished  the  material. 

4.  To  be  strictly  in  accordance  with  minute  of  Council  of  Education,  No.  359. 

5.  Competitors  will  see  the  necessity  of  gaining  an  abundance  of  light,  and  also  of 

providing  in  their  plans  for  an  efficient  and  simple  mode  of  heating  and  venti- 
lating, to  be  included  in  the  estimates, 
fi.  No  building  must  advance  beyond  the  line  marked  in  ground-plan. 

7.  From  the  character  of  the  adjoining  buildings  a classical  style  of  architecture  is 

not  suitable  for  the  site. 

8.  Materials  to  be  used : brick,  red  or  white,  or  the  stone  of  the  neighborhood,  which 

is  bluish  gray  and  easily  worked. 

Five  days  allowed  for  this  paper. 

PAINTING. 

Group  2.  — Second  Certificate. —July,  1863. 

1.  Of  what  substances  are  the  pigments  constant  white,  chrome  yellow,  Naples  yel- 

low, gamboge,  vermilion,  lake,  light  red,  Indian  red,  ultramarine,  cobalt,  and 
Vandyke  brown,  composed  ? 

2.  Write  explanations  of  the  following  terms  : tint,  tone,  hue,  breadth,  local  color, 

chiaroscuro,  handling,  glazing,  scumbling. 

3.  Give  in  chronological  order  the  names  of  the  Italian  schools  of  painting,  and  of 

the  principal  masters  in  each. 

4.  Give  some  account  of  Albert  Durer  and  his  works. 

5.  Give  some  account  of  Michael  Angelo  and  ot  his  works. 

6.  Give  some  account  of  Rubens  and  of  his  works. 

7.  Give  some  account  of  Reynolds  and  of  his  works. 

8.  Name  some  of  the  best  works  of  the  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  schools. 

9.  Describe  the  various  materials  and  processes  of  oil  painting. 

10.  Describe  the  various  materials  and  processes  of  water-color  painting. 

Group  2. — Second  Certificate.  — February,  1863. 

1.  Describe  the  method  of  painting  large  subjects  on  linen,  which  was  peculiar  to 

England  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

2.  Describe  the  process  of  fresco-painting,  and  the  distinctive  features  between 

u buon  fresco  )}  and  fresco  secco.” 

3.  Describe  the  progress  of  a picture  in  the  hands  of  an  early  Flemish  painter 

in  oil. 

4.  What  were  the  principles  of  the  school  of  the  Carraci,  and  when  and  where  was 

it  established  ? 


360 


APPENDIX  III. 


5.  What  occasions  the  cracking,  the  wrinkling  of  the  surface,  and  the  discoloration 

observable  in  various  oil-color  pictures  ? 

6.  With  what  medium  are  Cuyp’s  pictures  painted  ? 

7.  What  colors  were  used  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  paintings  of  a head  by  Rey- 

nolds, in  his  most  usual  manner? 

8.  What  are  most  usually  considered  the  greatest  works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  of 

Michael  Angelo,  of  Raphael,  of  Rubens,  of  Dominichino,  of  Titian,  and  of  Tin- 
toretto, respectively  ? 

9.  Who  were  the  principal  Spanish  painters,  and  what  were  the  characteristics 

of  their  work  ? 


BOTANY. 


Group  2.  — Second  Certificate. — February,  1864. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  tbe  root  of  a plant? 

2.  In  what  way  does  the  root  derive  fluids  from  the  earth  ? 

3.  Give  the  three  typical  varieties  of  the  venation  of  the  leaf. 

4.  The  leaves  of  certain  plants  fall  annually  from  their  parent  by  a clean  fracture. 

What  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  such  leaves  ? 

5.  What  is  the  internal  structure  of  those  stems  from  which  the  leaves  annually 

fall  ? 

6.  Name  the  parts  in  what  may  be  termed  a perfectly  developed  or  typical  flower. 

7.  What  is  the  object  of  the  stamens? 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  the  pistil  ? 

9.  To  how  many  typical  organs  are  the  parts  of  the  plant  referable  ? 

10.  In  what  way  does  the  plant  repeat  itself  by  growth  ? 

11.  Name  some  instances  in  which  the  plant  appears  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 

circumstances  by  which  it  is  surrounded,  or  to  the  work  it  has  to  perform. 

12.  Give  the  characters  of  the  four  great  classes  of  plants,  i.e.,  Exogens,  Endogens, 

Acrogens,  and  Thallogens. 

One  hour  and  a half  allowed  for  this  paper. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

Groups  3,  5,  and  6. 

Each  candidate  will  be  required  to  produce  two  sets  of  six  studies  each  from  the 
ornament  of  ornamental  objects  in  the  Museum  of  tbe  Department,  to  be  accom- 
panied with  the  dates  and  a brief  explanation  of  the  principal  and  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  the  two  styles. 

One  of  the  subjects  named  below  will  be  given  out  to  each  candidate  by  tbe 
examiner,  and  three  clear  days  allowed  to  each  candidate  for  the  completion  of 
the  twelve  studies  and  explanation.  Where  the  ornament  is  colored,  the  color  must 
be  indicated  in  the  sketches. 

Each  set  of  the  works  to  be  contained  on  a sheet  of  imperial  paper,  the  explana- 
tions having  figured  references,  and  being  carefully  written. 

1.  Chinese  enamels  and  Limoges  enamels,  prior  to  the  end  of  thirteenth  cen- 

tury. 

2.  Persian  and  Hispano-Moresco. 

3.  Sixteenth-century  metal  work,  Italian  and  French. 

4.  Sixteenth-century  metal  work.  Italian  and  German. 

5.  Damascene  work,  Saracenic  and  Italian. 

6.  Sixteenth-century  French  pottery. 

7.  Seventeenth-century  English  and  Italian  wood-carving. 

8.  German  and  Italian  marqueterie. 

9 Stained  glass  prior  to  end  of  seventeenth  century,  Italian  and  Flemish. 

10.  Stained  glass  prior  to  seventeenth  century,  Italian  and  German. 

11.  Borders  of  illuminated  missals  prior  to  seventeenth  century,  and  Persian  manu- 

script borders. 

12.  Arabesques,  Urbino  ware,  sixteenth  century ; Frenza  ware,  same  date. 

13.  Italian  diapered  silk  prior  to  seventeenth  century ; Indian  silk  diapers. 


APPENDIX  III. 


361 


TECHNICAL  ORNAMENT. 

Group  4.  — Fourth  Certificate.  — February,  1862. 

1.  What  are  the  proper  modifications  of  design  for  wrought-iron  ? 

2.  What  are  the  proper  modifications  of  design  for  casting  in  iron,  bronze,  &c.  ? 

3.  Should  any  distinctive  character  of  relief  he  observed  in  the  subordinate  parts  of 

architectural  decoration  ? 

4.  What  are  the  technical  peculiarities  in  mediEeval  (fifteenth  century)  wood-carving, 

as  distinguished  from  carvings  executed  in  other  materials  ? 

6.  In  architectural  decoration,  if  the  relief  is  intended  to  be  finished  by  gilding,  &e., 
would  there  be  any  special  requirement  in  the  treatment  of  foliage  ornament  ? 
Two  hours  allowed  for  this  paper. 


362 


APPENDIX  III. 


SPECIMEN  OF  FIRST  GRADE 

EXAMINATION  PAPER  FOR  FREEHAND  OUTLINE. 

FORTY  MDsTTTES  ALLOWED. 

For  Children  of  Twelve  Years  and  under. 

This  example  is  intended  to  be  copied  the  same  size  on  paper.  An  HB  or  F pencil 
should  be  used.  Measuring  is  not  to  be  resorted  to. 


i' 


Write  1.  Your  name. 

2.  Your  age. 

3.  Your  school. 


APPENDIX  III. 


363 


SPECIMEN  OP 

SUBJECT  SET  UP  FOR  MODEL-DRAWING. 

FIRST  GRADE.  FORTY  MINUTES  ALLOWED. 

For  Children  of  Twelve  Years  and  under. 


Write  1.  Your  name. 

2.  Your  age. 

3.  Your  school. 


364 


APPENDIX  III. 


SPECIMEN  OF 

EXAMINATION  PAPER,  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 

FIRST  GRADE.  FORTY  MINUTES  ALLOWED. 

For  Children  of  Twelve  Years  and  under. 


1.  2. 


A B 

1.  Make  a right  angle  at  B. 

Divide  it  into  four  equal  parts. 

3. 


3.  Find  the  centre  of  this  circle. 
Inscribe  a square  within  it. 

5. 

A B 

5.  Divide  A B into  five  equal  parts. 


A B 

2.  On  A B make  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle. 

Find  its  centre. 

4. 


A B 

4.  On  A B make  a regular  pentagon. 


6.  A B is  the  diagonal  of  a square. 
Construct  it. 


Write  1.  Your  name. 

2.  Your  age. 

3.  Your  school. 


APPENDIX  III. 


365 


SPECIMEN  OP  SECOND-GRADE  EXAMINATION  PAPER,  FREEHAND 
OUTLINE  DRAWING.  Time  allowed.  One  Hour. 

Second  Grade  is  for  Teachers  of  Public  Schools  and  Students  of  Schools  of  Art. 


To  he  drawn  on  a centre  line  equal  to  the  dotted  line.  No  measuring  allowed. 

Write  1.  Your  name  at  full  length. 

2.  Your  age  last  birthday. 

3.  The  school  where  you  learn  drawing. 


366 


APPENDIX  III. 


SPECIMEN  OF 

GROUP  PLACED  FOR  MODEL-DRAWING. 

FOR  SECOND-GRADE  EXAMINATION. 


Time  allowed,  One  Hour. 

To  be  drawn  as  large  as  the  paper  will  allow. 


Write  1.  Your  name. 

2.  Your  age. 

3.  Your  school. 


Size  of  paper  used, 
12  In.  by  8 in. 


APPENDIX  III. 


367 


SPECIMEN-  OF  SECOND-GRADE 

EXAMINATION  PAPER,  MEMORY  DRAWING 

Upon  the  Blackboard,  and  upon  the  Sheet  of  Paper  furnished. 

Time  allowed,  to  be  settled  by  tbc  Examiner,  according  to  the  difficulty  of  the  sub- 
ject chosen.  [Usual  time,  fifteen  minutes  for  each.] 

Directions.  — Choose  from  the  subjoined  list  any  two  subjects  you  can  draw 
from  memory. 


1 . A Chair  (corner  in  front). 

7.  A Round  Table. 

2.  A Chair  (side  in  front). 

8.  A Barrel. 

3.  A Tea-kettle. 

9.  Street  Lamp. 

4.  A Branch  of  Maple. 

10.  A Boat. 

5.  A Pitcher. 

11.  An  Animal. 

6.  The  Letter  M (Roman  character). 

12.  A House. 

The  pencil-drawing  to  fill  the  space  beneath.  The  blackboard-drawing  to  be 
two  feet  high. 


Write  1.  Your  name  at  fulllength. 

2.  Your  age  last  birthday. 

3.  The  school  where  you  learn  drawing, 


368 


APPENDIX  III. 


SPECIMEN  OP  SECOND-GRADE 

EXAMINATION  PAPER,  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 

TIME  ALLOWED,  ONE  HOUR. 


1.  On  the  part  A B of  the  side  A C,  construct  a rectangle  similar  to  the  given 

one. 

2.  On  A B construct  a pentagon,  then  a triangle  and  a square  equal  In  area 
to  it. 

3.  Complete  the  ellipse,  of  which  the  fansverse  diameter  and  half  the  curve 
are  given,  by  means  of  the  foci  and  interseeti  g arcs.  Then  raise  a perpendicular 
at  A. 

4.  Describe  a tangential  arc  to  the  two  given  circles  which  shall  touch  the 
largest  in  point  A. 

6.  Complete  the  polygon  of  which  A B,  B C,  are  two  sides. 

6.  Construct  an  equilateral  triangle  equal  in  area  to  the  given  triangle. 

Write  1.  Tour  name  in  full. 

2.  Tour  age  last  birthday. 

3.  The  school  where  you  learn  to  draw. 


SPECIMEN  OF  SECOND-GRADE  EXAMINATION  PAPER,  LINEAR  PERSPECTIVE.  Time  allowed,  One  Hour, 


APPENDIX  III. 


369 


Your  age  last  birthday. 

The  school  where  you  learn  drawing. 


370 


APPENDIX  IV. 


APPENDIX  IV. 


PROGRAMMES  OF  SCHOOLS  OF  ART.  1,  AMERICAN  j 2.  ENGLISH  | 
3.  FRENCH  i 4,  GERMAN. 


I.  — AMERICAN  SCHOOLS  OF  DESIGN.  • 

In  order  that  it  may  be  seen  what  is  accomplished  already  in  the  way  of 
industrial  art  education,  I give  the  prospectuses  and  codes  of  rules  of  such 
American  institutions  as  have  come  under  my  observation.  Those  classes 
I have  seen  in  this  country,  or  whose  premises  and  collections  I have 
examined,  seem  to  me  to  suiter  from  ill-adapted  arrangements  and  a want 
of  good  examples, — both  so  easily  removable,  that  it  is  a subject  of  astonish- 
ment to  me  the  evils  have  not  been  long  since  remedied.  This  remark 
does  not  apply  specially  to  the  following  American  schools,  but  is  general 
in  its  application  ; and  it  was  with  the  view  of  assisting  to  overcome  these 
difficulties  that  the  principal  part  of  this  book  has  been  prepared. 

NEW  YORK. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  JDESIGN, 

CORNER  TWENTT-THIRD  STREET  AND  FOURTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK. 

The  schools  of  the  Academy,  which  have  been  in  operation, /ree,  day  and  even- 
ing. male  and  female,  for  forty-seven  years,  embrace,  at  present,  an  Antique  (or 
Statuary)  School,  Life  (nude)  School,  School  of  Anatomy,  and  also  of  Perspective. 
Schools  of  Painting  and  Modelling  will  he  supplied  as  required.  The  present 
Antique  Class  numbers  175;  the  Life  Class,  55.  The  lectures  upon  Anatomy  and 
Perspective,  and  the  general  lectures,  are  attended  by  all  classes  of  students.  An 
annual  exhibition  of  selected  drawings,  and  rewards  of  merit,  takes  place  about  the 
close  of  each  school  year.  The  academic  system  is  generally  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Royal  Academy  "in  London,  and  of  other  European  institutions  of  that  kind. 

National  Academy  of  Design, 
New  York,  Mar.  1, 1865. 

To  Artist s,  Art-Students , and  o'hers  making  inquiry  as  to  the  terms  of  admission 
into  the  Academy  as  Academicians,  Associates , Fellows,  Honorary  Members , or 
Students. 

ACADEMICIANS 

Academicians  are  chosen  only  from  the  body  of  Associates,  or  f om  such  ■profes- 
sional honorary  members  as  reside  permanently  in  the  city  or  vicinity  of  New 
York.  They  are  elected  only  at  the  annual  meetings,  on  the  second  Wednesdays  of 
May.  and  after  their  names  shall  have  been  duly  entered  by  an  Academician  on  the 
record  provided  for  that  purpose,  which  record  is  finally  closed  each  year  six  days 
before  the  meeting.  They  must  he  exhibitors  in  the  annual  exhibition  of  the  year 
of  their  nomination.  A vote  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present  at  an  annual 
meeting  is  required  to  elect.  To  confirm  and  make  legal  their  election,  they  must, 


APPENDIX  IV. 


371 


within  one  year  thereafter,  present  to  the  Academy  a specimen  of  their  art,  to  be 
preserved  in  the  gallery  of  the  institution.  The  Academicians  are  the  body  corpo- 
rate; and  in  their  election  distinguished  professional  ability  and  personal  character 
are  the  only  claims  entertained. 

ASSOCIATES. 

Associates  of  the  Academy  must  be  professional  artists  residing  in  the  city  or 
vicinity  of  New  York  They  must  be  nominated  and  b illoted  for  at  the  same  time, 
and  in  the  same  manner,  as  ihe  Academicians,  and  must  also  be  exhibiters  in  the 
exhibition  of  the  year  in  which  they  are  proposed  as  Associates.  It  is  also  an  ad- 
vantage, though  not  a necessity,  to  have  been  for  some  years  previous  to  their  nomi- 
nation exhibiters  in  the  galleries  of  the  Academy,  since  (as  in  the  case  of  candidates 
as  Academicians)  the  only  claims  which  they  can  present  for  election  are  those  of 
personal  character  and  of  professional  merit.  Associates  elect  must  (to  confirm  and 
make  legal  their  election)  present  to  the  Academy,  within  one  year  thereafter,  their 
portraits,  on  canvas  twenty-five  by  thirty  inches,  painted  by  themselves  or  by  other 
artists,  at  their  option. 


FELLOWS. 

The  grade  of  Fellows  was  established  Jan.  14,  1863.  for  the  double  purpose  of 
increasing  the  financial  means  of  the  Academy,  and  to  add  to  its  moral  force  by 
promoting  more  general  and  more  intimate  association  and  intercourse  between 
artists  and  lovers  of  art;  which  very  desirable  objects  it  promises  to  advance, 
to  the  pleasure  and  profit  of  all. 

Connoisseurs,  amateurs,  and  all  lovers  of  art,  may  become  Fellows  of  the  Acad- 
emy for  life,  and  receive  their  diplomas  as  such,  on  the  payment  of  a subscription 
of  one  hundred  dollars  to  the  Fellowship  Fund  of  the  Academy. 

The  privileges  of  Fellows  will  be  to  receive  five  season-tickets  for  each  of  the 
annual  exhibitions,  which  they  may  distribute  as  they  please,  in  their  own  names; 
to  be  invited  to  all  the  receptions  of  the  society,  and  to  have  access  to  the  library 
and  reading-rooms;  also  to  nominate  two  students  annually  to  the  schools. 

Subscribers  of  five  hundred  dollars  to  the  Fellowship  Fund  are  constituted  Fel- 
lows in  Perpetuity,  with  all  the  privileges  of  Fellows  for  Life,  and  the  additional 
one  of  transferring  or  transmitting  the  same. 

HONORARY  MEMBERS. 

Honorary  membership  is  conferred  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  election  of  Associates  and  of  Academicians,  upon  distinguished  artists  and 
lovers  of  art,  at  home  or  abroad. 

STUDENTS. 

Students  should  have  already  mastered  the  simple  elementary  difficulties  of  the 
art,  as  the  Academy  schools  are  intended  for  professional  students  who  have 
already  acquired  a certain  degree  of  skill  in  the  use  of  the  crayon  or  pencil,  rather 
than  for  mere  beginners. 

On  entering  the  Antique  (or  Statuary)  School,  the  student  must  submit  to  the 
council  such  a drawing,  in  light  and  shade,  of  a plaster  head,  foot,  face,  or  other  por- 
tion of  the  human  figure,  as  shall  be  considered  to  indicate  talent  worthy  of  further 
cultivation 

Before  entering  the  Life  School,  an  approved  drawing  of  a full-length  statue  must 
be  submitted  to  the  council,  which  drawing  may  be  best  made  in  the  Antique 
School. 

Certificates,  which  admit  the  holders  also  to  the  annual  exhibitions,  the  lectures 
of  the  Academy,  and  other  like  privileges,  are  granted  to  students  on  admission. 
The  schools  are  open  from  seven  to  nine  o’clock  every  evening  through  the  autumn 
and  winter  months  of  each  year.  No  fees  are  required. 

Applicants  for  either  of  the  schools,  when  nominated  by  Fellows  of  the  Academy, 
should  send  to  the  council,  or  bring  with  them,  such  nomination,  which  should  be  an 
assurance  of  their  merit,  in  character,  industry,  and  earnestness. 

T.  Addison  Richards,  Cor.  Sec.  N.  A. 


National  Academy  of  Design,  Schools,  1870-71. 

The  Antique  School  will  recommence  for  the  season  on  Monday,  Oct.  3,  and  will 
be  followed  in  due  course  with  the  re-opening  of  the  Life  Class.  It  is  proposed 
also  (as  the  number  and  qualification  of  students  may  demand,  and  as  the  means  of 
the  Academy  may  warrant)  to  establish  classes  for  the  study  of  painting,  both  from 
the  nude  and  the  draped  figure,  in  landscape  and  from  still  l.fe;  classes  also  in 


372 


APPENDIX  IV. 


modelling,  perspective,  and  anatomy,  lectures  on  art,  and  an  annual  concourse  or 
competition  between  students,  and  an  exhibition  of  their  works  with  awards  of 
merit,  including  the  Suydam  and  Elliott  Medals,  now  in  course  of  preparation. 

The  schools  will  be  open  day  and  evening  free  of  charge,  the  students  furnishing 
only  their  easels  and  materials. 

For  admission  to  the  Antique  School,  the  applicant  will  be  required  to  submit  to 
the  council  an  approved  shaded  drawing  of  a hand,  foot,  or  other  part  of  a cast  of 
the  human  Bgure.  Advancement  to  other  classes  will  be  made  according  to  prog- 
ress and  merit. 

By  order  of  the  Council, 

T.  Addison  Richards,  Cor.  Sec.  AT.  A. 

Twenty-Third  Street  and  Fourth  Avenue, 

New  York,  June  1,  1870. 


COOPER  UNION  EOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE 
AND  ART. 

FEMALE  ART  SCHOOL. 

Miss  Ellen  E Ciiilde,  Principal. 

Miss  Fannie  Powell.  Teacher  of  Model  and  Ornament  Drawing  from  Cast. 

Mr.  J F.  Engel,  Teacher  of  Figure  Drawing  from  Cast. 

Miss  Charlotte  B Cogswell,  Teacher  of  IFood  Engraving. 

.Miss  Anna  Curtis.  Clerk. 

This  department  of  the  Caoper  Union  has  been  established  by  the  Trustees  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  trust  deed,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  free 
lnstruc  ion  in  the  arts  of  design  to  females,  who.  having  the  requisite  taste  and  natural 
capacity,  intend  lo  apply  ill  knowledge  acquired  in  the  institution  to  their  support, 
either  by  teaching  or  pursuing  art  as  a profession.  The  following  Rules  have  been 
adopted  for  the  government  of  the  school ; strict  compliance  with  which  is  necessary 
in  order  to  secure  good  order  and  progress. 

RULES  AND  REGULATIONS. 

1.  The  annual  term  commences  on  the  1st  of  October,  and  terminates  on  the 
thirtieth  day  of  May,  In  each  year  Students  are  not  admitted  for  less  than  one 
school  year;  but  if  compelled,  by  i Iness  or  any  other  cause,  to  leave  sooner  or  be 
absent  for  any  time,  they  are  required  in  all  cases  to  communicate  with  the  prin- 
cipal. 

1.  Pupils  are  not  permitted  to  pay  for  any  instruction  given  in  the  school,  but 
must  provide,  at  their  owu  expense,  all  the  materials  required  for  their  instruction, 
such  as  paper,  pencils,  crayons,  colors  brushes,  and  instruments,  but  not  models  or 
easels,  which  a e provided  by  the  trustees 

3.  The  hours  of  attendance  are  from  9.  a.m  . to  1,  p m . daily,  except  Saturdays 
and  Sundays  AH  pupils  are  required  lo  enter  not  later  than  nine  o’clock,  and  to  be 
in  their  places  before  a quarter  past  nine,  when  the  bell  rings.  An  intermission  of 
tea  minutes  will  occur  at  11.15.  A M ; and  at  1.  p m.,  an  interval  of  half  an  hour  will 
be  allowed  for  luncheon,  a’  which  time  only , eating  will  be  allowed  in  school. 

Students  may  remain  for  practice  from  l,  p m . until  4,  pm,  but  not  later. 

4.  The  art  instruction  of  the  school  will  be  conducted  by  Ihc  principal,  and  the 
business  under  the  charge  of  the  clerk.  The  teachers,  clerk,  and  monitors  are 
each  required  to  assis.  the  principal  in  the  good  order  and  discipline  of  the  school; 
and  the  students  are  req-^'vd  lo  follow  their  directions 

5 No  unnecessary  con  ersation  will  be  allowed  during  the  hours  of  study;  and 
students  cannot  b-*  permitted  to  wander  from  their  own  classes,  or  to  change  the 
scats  assigned  to  them,  without  the  permission  of  the  principal. 

6.  Students  cannot  leave  the  school  during  the  hours  of  stud.'  without  the  consent 
of  the  principal,  nor  receive  visitors  duriug  school  ha  irs,  or  at  all  at  the  school, 
except  on  visiting-days;  in  cases  of  emergency,  the  s.u.ient  will  be  summoned  to  tho 
office  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  visitors.  Letters  will  be  delivered  only  at  the  close 
of  the  hours  of  study. 

7.  Visitors  will  be  received  only  on  Fridays  from  11,  a m.  to  12i,  p M ; hut  they 
must  not  remain  for  conversation;  and  no  gentleman  unaccompanied  by  a lady  will 


APPENDIX  IV. 


373 


be  allowed  to  visit  the  school  without  the  written  permit  of  one  of  the  trustees  or 
of  the  advisory  council  of  ladies. 

8.  Students  are  in  all  cases  required  to  follow  the  direction  and  course  of  study 
prescribed  by  the  principal,  and  will  not  be  permitted  to  change  seats,  classes,  or 
models,  without  her  consent. 

9.  Every  student  is  required  to  write  her  name  legibly , and  before  she  begins , on 
the  right-hand  top  corner  of  the  paper  used  for  any  drawing  executed  in  the  school. 
The  drawings  will  be  the  property  of  the  students,  with  the  exception  of  such  as 
are  retained  by  the  principal ; every  student  being  required  to  give  one  at  the  expira- 
tion of  every  scliool  term  if  wanted,  but  no  drawings  can  be  removed  from  the 
school  until  after  the  annual  exhibition  at  that  time.  All  drawings  are  to  be  given 
in  at  the  office  every  month,  to  be  k pt  in  a place  appointed  for  their  reception. 
Students  who  attend  the  lectures  on  geometry  and  perspective  are  expected  at  the 
time  to  copy  the  drawings  from  the  blackboard,  and  afterward  to  work  them  out 
more  neatly  and  carefully  and  to  give  them  in  weekly,  at  the  office  (signed  with 
their  name),  to  be  examined.  All  students  are  required  to  put  tneir  paper  and  all 
their  other  materials  away  neatly  every  day. 

10.  The  annual  exhibition  will  take  place  during  the  last  week  in  May.  when  cer- 
tificates and  medals  will  be  awarded  to  deserving  students. 

The  income  of  the  Prize  Fund  founded  by  A.  A Low,  Esq.,  and  F.  A.  Lane,  Esq., 
amounting  each  to  $60  in  gold,  will  be  distributed  as  follows  : — 

The  principal  shall  select  a model,  being  either  the  cast  of  a head  or  a part  of  the 
human  figure,  from  which  the  students  competing  for  the  prize  shall  make  their 
drawings.  To  the  best  drawing  $30;  to  the  second-best,  $20;  and  to  the  third-best 
$10  will  be  awarded. 

In  like  manner,  the  principal  shall  select  a model,  either  in  natural  flowers  or  foli- 
age, or  casts  of  ornament,  from  which  the  pupils  competing  for  the  prize  shall  make 
their  drawings.  To  the  best  drawing  $30;  to  the  second-best,  $i:0;  and  to  the  third- 
best  $10  shall  be  awarded.  The  awards  shall  be  made  by  a committee  of  three 
artists,  to  be  selected  by  the  ladies  of  the  advisory  council,  or  the  trustees,  and  the 
drawings  must  bo  ready  by  the  second  day  of  May 

The  prize  of  $10  in  gold,  founded  by  the  late  Robert  C.  Goodhue,  will  be  awarded 
to  the  best  drawing  on  wood  made  in  the  school  during  the  term,  to  be  decided  by  a 
competent  committee  in  like  manner. 

Students  who  have  received  a mo  ley  prize  will  be  excluded  from  the  competition 
for  the  same  grade  of  prize,  in  the  same  department,  but  will  be  free  to  compete  for 
a higher  prize. 

11.  In  order  that  students  may  become  familiar  with  their  duties  as  teachers,  the 
principal  is  required  to  appoint  moaitre-s^s,  who  snail  supervise  the  instruction  of 
the  beginners.  All  drawings  required  for  the  Cooper  Union  shall  be  executed  in  the 
school  without  charge. 

12.  The  school  is  visited  by  an  advisory  council  of  ladies  and  artists,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  report  to  the  trustees,  in  a book  provided  for  the  purpose,  on  the  condition 
of  the  school,  and  the  progress  of  the  oupils.  Complaints  may  be  addressed  to  the 
ladies  of  the  advisory  couucil,  or  to  the  secretary.  Pupils,  who,  from  lack  of  tal- 
ent or  industry,  do  not  give  evidence  of  satisfactory  progress,  will  be  dismissed 
from  the  school.*  Any  breach  of  good  behavior  will  be  followed  by  prompt  dismissal. 

13.  A special  teacher  is  provided  for  engraving  on  wood,  and  a special  class 
formed,  into  which  pupils  are  admitted  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  drawing.  Orders  are  received  for  engraving,  and  will  be  executed  by 
the  pupils  to  whom  th6y  may  be  assigned  by  the  teacher,  and  the  money  thus  earned 
L paid  t5  the  pupils  who  may  be  entitled  to  it.  But  it  is  distinctly  announced  that 
the  school  is  not  intended  to  be  a workshop,  except  for  instruction ; and,  when  the 
number  of  skilled  pupils  becomes  inconveniently  large,  the  more  advanced  must  give 
place  to  the  learners  : but  orders  will  be  received  aC  the  school,  and  given  out  to  those 
who  have  been  pupils,  to  be  executed  at  home. 

14.  Pupils  must  not  absent  themselves  from  the  school,  or  come  later  than  nine 
o’clock  in  the  morning,  without  the  consent  of  the  principal ; and  three  absences, 
not  excused  by  the  principal,  will  forfeit  the  place  of  the  pupil  so  absenting  herself. 
PI  ices  will  not  be  retained  in  the  school  for  students  who  may  desire  to  defer  their 
attendance,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  who  may  be  prepared  to  attend  at  once ; but  the 
principal  is  authorized  to  grant  leave  of  absence  when  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
may  render  it  proper. 

15.  The  proper  care  of  the  models  and  other  property  of  the  school  is  confided  to 
the  students ; and  their  good  sense  is  appealed  to,  to  preserve  the  order  of  the  school, 
and  to  exercise  a reasonable  forbearance  towards  each  other  and  the  teachers,  whose 
duties  are  so  difficult  and  trying. 

By  order  of  the  trustees, 

Abram  S.  Hewitt,  Secretary . 


374 


APPENDIX  IV. 


Commonbttctlifr  of  Iftassacjmstfts. 


BOARD  OF  EDUCATION,  STATE  HOUSE. 
D apartment  cf  Art  Education. 


Scheme  of  Instruction  in  Draining  suggested  for  graded  Public 
Schools  in  Massachusetts , complying  with  the  Act  of 
1870,  concerning  Industrial  Drawing. 


Arranged  be  Walter  Smith,  State  Director  of  Art  Education,  Mass. 


Schools. 

Classes. 

Time  Given 
per  Week. 

Lessons 

perWeek 

Length  of 
Lesson. 

Drawing  on 

Taught  by 

1 Primary 
1*  Schools.. 

6,  5.  4. 

Two  hours. 

Four. 

30  minutes. 

Slates. 

Regular 

Teachers. 

O Primary 
1%  Schools. 

* 3,  2,  1. 

Two  hours. 

Four. 

30  minutes. 

Paper  in 
blank  books 

Regular 

Teachers. 

D Grammar 
Oi  Schools. 

* 6,  5,  4. 

Two  liours. 

Three. 

40  minutes. 

Paper  in 
blank  books 
and 

textbooks. 

Regular 

Teachers. 

| Grammar 
4.  Schools. 

*3,  2.  1. 

Two  hours. 

Three. 

40  minutes. 

Paper  in 
blank  books 
and 

text-books. 

Regular 

Teachers. 

5. 

Latin 

and 

High 

Schools. 

* Lower 
Classes. 

Two  hours. 

Two. 

60  minutes. 

Paper  in 
blank  books 
and 

text- books. 

Regular 

Teachers. 

6. 

Latin 

and 

High 

Schools. 

* Higher 
Classes. 

Two  hours. 

Two. 

60  minutes. 

Paper  in 
blank  books 
and 

on  sheets. 

Special 

Instruc- 

tors. 

7. 

Normal 

Schools. 

* All  the 
Classes. 

Two  hours. 

Two. 

60  minutes. 

Paper  in 
blank  books 

Special 

Instruc- 

tors. 

APPENDIX  IV. 


375 


SUBJECTS  TAUGHT,  AND  ORDER  OF  LESSONS  FOR  EACH  WEEK. 


The  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  signify  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  lessons  in  each 
week. 

Where  two  alternative  subjects  are  named,  one  is  to  be  taken  one  week  and  an- 
other the  following  week. 

Reference  to  a text-book  means,  that  whatever  drawing-book  is  in  use  in  the 
schools  shall  be  drawn  from  as  a distinct  exercise. 

* All  the  classes  marked  thus  are  to  draw  upon  the  blackboard  when  the  lesson 
is  suitable  to  such  an  exercise ; one-third  of  the  class  to  draw  each  lesson,  so  that 
the  whole  class  will  have  drawn  upon  the  board  every  three  lessons. 


1 Freehand  outline  from  cards,  charts,  and  blackboard  lessons,  the  first  copies. 

• Memory  lessons,  drawing  previous  exercises  from  memory.  Definition  of 
plane  geometry,  to  be  learned  by  heart,  and  illustrations  drawn.  Dictation 
lessons  of  right  line  figures  and  simple  curves. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  From  cards  or  charts.  2.  From  blackboard.  3. 
Memory  and  dictation,  alternately.  4.  Geometric  definitions. 

2  The  more  advanced  copies  in  cards,  charts,  and  blackboard  lessons.  Memory 
• and  dictation  lessons  (without  illustrations).  Object-lessons,  illustrated  by 
drawings.  Greometric  definitions,  drawn  on  a large  scale. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  From  cards  or  chart.  2.  From  blackboard. 
3.  Memory  and  dictation,  alternately.  4.  Object-lessons  and  geometric  defini- 
tions, alternately. 


3  Freehand  outlines  of  ornament  and  objects,  from  blackboard.  Lessons  in 
• text-book.  Map-drawing.  Memory  and  dictation  lessons.  Geometrical  exer- 
cises, plane  geometry,  up  to  fifty  problems  of  constructional  figures. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  Objects  from  blackboard  and  drawing  from  text- 
book, alternately.  2.  Memory-drawing  and  dictation  exercises,  alternately.  3. 
Geometrical  and  map  drawing,  alternately. 

4  Freehand  outline  drawing,  from  solid  models.  Geometrical  drawing,  up  to 
• the  end  of  the  course.  Design  in  geometric  forms,  from  the  blackboard. 
Memory-drawing.  Map-drawing.  Dictation  lessons. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  Model-drawing,  from  object.  2.  Geometrical  and 
memory  drawing,  alternately.  3.  Map-drawing  and  design,  alternately. 


Model  and  object  drawing,  with  exercises  in  perspective,  drawn  by  the  free- 
'•  hand.  Object-lessons,  illustrating  historical  art  and  architecture.  Shading 
from  models  and  copies.  Harmony  and  mixture  of  colors.  Design  from 
natural  foliage. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  Model-shading  and  object-lessons,  alternately. 
2.  Lessons  in  color  and  exercises  in  design,  alternately. 

Perspective  by  instruments.  Shading  in  chalk  and  color,  from  models  and 
'•  natural  objects  and  foliage.  Design  in  color  and  shadow.  Projection.  Lec- 
tures on  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  Perspective  and  projection,  alternately.  2.  Paint- 
ing or  shading  or  design,  alternately. 


’ Object-drawing  and  design.  Ornamental  design.  Historical  lessons.  Ad- 
• vanced  dictation  and  memory  lessons.  Lessons  in  teaching  drawing.  Per- 
sp.  ctive,  advanced.  Designing  blackboard  examples. 

Order  of  Lessons.  — 1.  Object-drawing  and  design,  alternately.  2.  Per- 
spective and  dictation  or  memory  lessons,  alternately.  3.  Lessons  in  teaching 
drawing,  occasionally. 


S7G 


APPENDIX  IV 


BOSTON'. 

FRUE  EVENING  CLASSES  IN  BOSTON  FOR  THE  STUDY 
OF  INDUSTRIAL  DRAWING, 

Held  in  the  normal  Art  School.  Appleton  Street,  and  in  the  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, LoyUton  Street. 

Days  and  hours  of  study,  Monday,  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday,  7,  P.M.,  to  9, 
PM. 

Students  allowed  to  attend  either  on  Monday  and  Thursday,  or  Tuesday  and  Fri- 
day evenings,  but  not  ol'tener. 

STAGES  AND  SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY. 

ELEMENTARY  COURSE,  FROM  COPIES;  ADVANCED  COURSE,  FROM  THE  REAL  OBJECT 

OR  DESIGN. 

Stage  1.  Instrumental  drawing. 

a.  Linear  geometry. 

b.  Mechanical  and  machine  drawing. 

c.  Linear  perspective. 

d.  Details  of  architectural  drawing  and  building  construction. 

e.  Ship-drafting. 

[Stage  1.  consisting  of  instrumental  drawing,  is  at  present  carried  on  at 
the  institute  of  Technology  ] 

ELEMENTARY  COURSE. 

Stage  2.  Free-hand  outline  drawing  of  rigid  forms,  from  flat  examples,  or  copies. 

a.  Objects. 

b.  Ornament. 

c.  Flowers,  foliage,  and  objects  of  natural  history. 

d.  The  human  and  animal  figure. 

Mediums  used:  l,  pencil;  2,  chalk;  4,  ink. 

Stage  3.  Free-hand  outline  <! rawing,  from  the  “ round  ” or  solid  forms, 
a Geometric  solids,  vases,  etc. 

b.  Ornament  from  the  cast. 

c.  Flowers  and  foliage  from  nature. 

d.  Details  of  the  human  figure,  and  animal  forms  from  the  cast. 
Mediums  used  : 1,  pencil ; 2,  chalk;  4,  ink  or  sepia. 

ADVANCED  COURSE. 

Stage  4.  Shading,  from  flat  exnmp  es  or  copies. 

a.  Models  and  objects. 

b.  Ornament. 

c.  Flowers  and  foliage. 

d.  Details  of  human  and  animal  figures, 
c.  Landscape  details. 

Mediums  used  : 1,  pencil;  2,  chalk;  3,  charcoal;  4,  ink  or  sepia. 

Stage  5.  Shading  from  the  “ round  " or  solid  forms. 

a.  Geometrical  solids  and  vases. 

b.  Ornament  from  the  cast. 

c.  Flowers  and  foliage  from  nature. 

d . Details  of  human  and  animal  figures  from  the  cast. 

Mediums  used:  1.  pencil;  2,  chalk;  3.  charcoal;  4,  ink  or  sepia. 
ELEMENTARY  AND  ADVANCED  COURSES. 

Stage  6.  Original  design. 

a.  Elementary  design  of  geometric  forms  to  fill  given  spaces. 

b.  Ornamental  arrangements  of  natural  forms,  conventionalized  in  one 

color,  or  monochrome,  to  cover  given  spaces. 

c.  Ditto  in  color,  harmonized. 

d.  Applied  design  for  snrface  decorations. 

e.  Applied  design  for  the  “ round.”  in  wood,  etone,  metal,  or  clay. 
Mediums  used:  1.  pencil;  2,  chalk;  3,  charcoal;  4,  monochrome;  5, 

color. 


APPENDIX  IV. 


377 


This  provisional  course  is  arranged,  both  as  to  stages  and  sections,  in  progressive 
order.  Students  who  are  not  beginners  should  show  the  teachers  some  work  already- 
done  by  them,  that  they  may  be  placed  in  their  right  position  in  the  course.  Begin- 
ners are  to  commence  at  Stage  II. ; and  they  will  be  promoted  by  the  masters  accord- 
ing to  progress  made. 

No  drawing  will  be  considered  finished  until  stamped  by  the  master  of  the  class  in 
which  it  is  done ; and  a new  drawing  must  not  be  commenced  until  the  old  one  is  so 
stamped.  All  finished  drawings  are  to  be  left  in  the  schools;  and  the  drawing  com- 
mittee reserve  the  right  of  retaining  selected  works,  — others  will  be  returned  to 
their  authors  after  each  annual  exhibition. 

Voluntary  examinations  will  be  held  at  the  end  of  each  term,  in  April,  for  those 
who  wish  to  obtain  certificates  of  proficiency. 

Wm.  T.  B high  am,  Chairman. 

Walter  Smith,  Director  of  the  Classes . 


LOWELL  INSTITUTE,  BOSTON 

FREE  DRAWING-SCHOOL. 

For  Young  Men  : two  evenings  each  week,  from  October  to  April. 

Applications  must  be  made  in  the  handwriting  of  the  applicant;  stating  name  in 
full,  age,  residence,  occupation,  and  be  accompanied  with  certificates  from  parents 
or  employers,  and  such  specimens  of  drawing  as  the  applicant  may  wish  to  offer. 

Those  applicants  will  be  received  who  can  furnish  the  best  evidence  of  good  moral 
character,  of  general  intelligence  and  ability,  of  industry  and  skill,  together  with  a 
taste  for  design  and  drawing. 

Applicants  will  assemble  at  the  Institute,  Room  No.  3,  on  Thursday  evening,  Sept. 
28.  at  seven  o’clock,  for  examination  and  admission. 

For  Young  Women  : two  afternoons  each  week,  from  October  to  April. 
Applications  to  be  made  as  above. 

Applicants  will  assemble  at  the  Institute,  Room  No.  3,  on  Thursday,  Sept.  28,  at 
two  o’clock,  l\M. 

Former  pupils  who  wish  to  rejoin  the  school  will  simply  make  written  application 
to  that  effect,  and  assemble  as  above,  with  other  applicants. 

Applic  itions  must  be  directed,  post-paid,  to  the  Curator  of  the  Institute,  Boston, 
on  or  before  Sept.  23,  1871. 

B.  E.  Cotting,  Curator . 

Boston,  Sept.  4, 1871. 


YALE. 

YALE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS,  A DEPARTMENT  OF 
YALE  COLLEGE. 

FACULTY. 

Noah  Porter,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  President. 

John  F.  Weir,  N.A.  M.A.,  Professor  of  Painting. 

John  H.  Niemeyer,  Professor  of  Drawing. 

D.  Cady  Eaton,  M.A.,  Professor  of  the  History  of  Art. 

The  objects  of  this  School  are  : — 

1.  The  education  of  practical  artists. 

2.  The  furnishing  ol  men  desiring  a liberal  education,  an  acquaintance  with  the 
practice,  principles,  and  history  of  art,  by  means  of  practical  work  and  lectures. 

This  institution  is  in  a flourishing  working  condition.  It  has  upwards  of  ninety 
students  that  receive  instruction.  These  students  are  mostly  members  of  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School,  who  are  qualifying  themselves  for  strictly  scientific  pursuits. 
Free-hand  drawing  has  been  made  an  important  part  of  their  regular  curriculum. 

The  course  of  study  is  based  upon  progressive  methods,  with  the  human  form,  as 
is  the  practice  in  the  best  schools  of  art  in  Europe. 

Lectures  are  given,  in  regular  courses,  on  the  history  of  art,  its  practice  and 
aesthetics. 

The  •*  Art  Building”  is  a fine  massive  structure,  containing  two  large  picture-gal- 
leries, in  one  of  which  is  an  historical  collection  of  the  Italian  school  of  painting, 
dating  from  the  earliest  masters  to  the  sixteenth  century.  These  pictures  are  one 
hundred  and  twenty  in  number,  and  were  collected  during  a period  of  twenty  years* 


378 


APPENDIX  IV. 


residence  in  Europe,  by  Mr.  James  Jackson  Jarves.  The  advantage  of  such  a col 
lection  to  the  art  student  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

Besides  these  galleries,  this  building  contains  large,  well-lighted  studios  for  profes- 
sors, and  ample  class-rooms  for  students. 

This  School  was  founded  by  the  free  gift  of  $250,000  by  the  late  Mr.  Augustus 
Russell  Street,  in  1864 . Two  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  the  cost  of  erecting  the 
Art  Building. 

Pupils  are  received  for  periods  varying  from  one  to  four  years,  determined  by 
their  proficiency  and  talent. 


PHILADELPHIA. 

THE  PHILADELPHIA  SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN  FOR  WOMEN. 

RULES  FOR  GOVERNMENT. 

1.  The  teachers  are  required  to  call  their  classes  to  order  punctually  at  ten  o’clock, 
a.m.,  at  which  hour  the  school  will  open.  Every  pupil  shall  be  at  her  seat,  ready  to 
commence  her  duties,  and  to  remain  diligently  occupied  till  the  close  of  the  lesson. 

2.  No  pupil  will  be  permitted  to  enter  after  ten  o'clock,  except  by  consent  of  the 
principal. 

3.  No  pupil  can  be  permitted  to  leave  her  place,  or  enter  into  any  conversation 
unconnected  with  her  occupation,  during  school-hours. 

4.  Punctual  and  regular  attendance  is  expected  from  all  the  pupils.  When 
absence  is  unavoidable,  satisfactory  explanations  will  be  required  when  they  return 
to  their  studies. 

5.  Hours  of  study  from  ten  to  three  o’clock,  with  an  intermission  of  half  an  hour 
at  half-past  twelve. 

6.  Pupils  are  requested  not  to  have  letters  or  notes  directed  to  them  at  the  school : 
should  any  be  received,  they  will  be  forwarded  by  mail  to  the  residence  of  the  stu- 
dents. 

7.  The  pupils  are  not  permitted  to  receive  visitors  at  the  schoolhouse. 

8.  The  pupils  will  be  charged  for  casts,  other  examples,  or  books  belonging  to  the 
school,  which  they  may  have  injured  or  lost;  and  no  pupil  can  take  out  of  the  school 
any  pattern  or  model  belonging  to  it. 

9.  Each  pupil  will  furnish  her  own  stationery  and  a portfolio  for  her  work,  which 
must  be  deposited  in  its  proper  place  at  the  close  of  her  lesson. 

10.  The  drawings  of  the  students  must  be  placed  on  the  walls,  and  remain  there 
for  exhibition,  and  for  the  inspection  of  the  directors  at  their  regular  stated  meet- 
ing*. 

11.  A daily  record  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  each  member  of  the  school, 
and  also  of  any  circumstances  worthy  of  note,  must  be  laid  before  the  directors 
at  their  monthly  meetings. 

12.  Under  no  circumstances  will  students  be  allowed  to  present,  or  the  teachers 
to  receive,  presents  from  the  students. 

13.  Every  student  is  required  to  attcud  the  lectures. 

***  It  is  earnestly  hoped  by  the  directors,  that  all  concerned  will  aid  them  in 
maintaining  these  regulations,  which  are  enacted  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupil, 
and  the  best  interests  of  the  school. 

The  parents  and  guardi  ms  of  students  are  respectfully  urged  to  visit  the  institu- 
tion ; also  those  interested  in  its  objects. 

FEES  FOR  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR. 

Elementary  Course.  $40.00;  Figure  and  Landscape  in  Oil.  each,  $20.00. 

Applicants  for  admission  can  receive  all  information  at  the  school,  where,  also, 
blank  formsof  application  will  be  furnished. 

t he  school  year  will  begin  Sept.  12.  1S7U.  and  close  on  the  second  Friday  of  June, 
1871.  There  will  be  a vacation  of  two  weeks  at  Christmas. 

Students  will  be  received  at  any  time  The  fees  are  payable  in  advance. 

Students,  before  leaving  the  institution,  are  expected  to  communicate,  by  letter, 
with  the  principal. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

“ The  courses  of  instruction  pursued  in  the  school  have  for  their  object  the  sys- 
tematic training  of  young  women  in  the  practice  of  art,  and  in  the  knowledge  of 
its  scientific  principles,  with  the  view  of  qualifying  them  to  impart  to  others  a care- 
ful art  education,  and  to  develop  its  application  to  the  common  uses  of  life,  and  its 
relation  to  the  requirements  of  trade  and  manufactures.” 


APPENDIX  IV. 


379 


The  stages  in  the  Elementary  Course,  with  the  lectures,  have  been  arranged  solely 
in  view  of  developing  a knowledge  of  form,  the  laws  of  light  and  shade,  color 
and  perspective,  none  of  which  can  safely  be  dispensed  with,  whether  in  the  prac- 
tice of  the  “ Fine  ” or  •*  Applied  Arts;  ” and  the  desire  of  the  directors  is.  that  all 
concerned  may  co-operate  in  carrying  out  the  ‘-Order  of  Studies”  herein  pre- 
scribed. The  course  lasts  from  two  and  a half  to  four  and  a half  years,  depending 
upon  the  industry  of  the  student. 


ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 

Preliminary  Stages. 

Stage  1.  a.  Drawing  in  outline,  and  shading,  from  casts  of  geometrical  figures  and 
vases,  in  different  positions. 

6.  Pencil  drawing  from  flat  examples. 

c.  Practice  in  the  handling  of  instruments. 

d.  Ornamental  geometry. 

e.  Primary  perspective. 

Stage  2.  a.  Drawing  and  shading  from  groups  composed  of  easts  of  geometrical 
solids  and  vases. 

6.  Pencil  drawing  from  flat  examples  of  ornamental  details. 

c.  Ornamental  geometry. 

d.  Elementary  perspective. 

e.  Coloring  diagrams  with  the  three  primary  colors,  by  which  the  student 

sees  how  the  secondary,  tertiary,  and  complementary  colors  are  pro- 
duced, and  the  modification  which  colors  undergo  by  being  brought 
in  contact  with  each  other. 

Note.  — All  these  works  must  be  execured  with  an  intelligent  clearness  and  pre- 
cision, and  the  last  drawing  in  the  group  section  must  be  commenced  and  finished 
without  instruction;  that  is,  it  will  be  a “ test  group,”  determining  whether  the 
student  will  be  passed,  or  retained  for  further  practice  in  the  preliminary  stages. 

Advanced  Stages. 

Stage  1.  a.  Drawing  and  shading  from  casts  of  single  leaves,  from  nature. 

b.  Drawing  and  shading,  from  casts  of  details  of  architectural  ornament, 

consisting  of  a leaf  moulding  from  the  Temple  of  Mars,  the  centre 
rosette  from  Trajan’s  Scroll,  and  a moulding  boss  from  St.  Stephen’s, 
Westminster. 

c.  At  this  point  the  student  must  exhibit  well-executed  diagrams,  illus- 

trating the  primary  rules  of  perspective.  ' 

d.  Landscape,  from  the  fiat,  in  pencil. 

e.  Ornamental  geometry. 

/.  Drawing  and  shading,  from  casts  from  nature  of  the  Callo  Ethiopica, 
water  lily  branch  of  apples,  branch  of  gourd  and  leaf,  branch  of 
grapes,  and  a branch  of  blackberries. 

g.  Drawing  and  shading,  from  details  of  architectural  ornament,  consist- 

ing of  casts  from  the  upper  cornice  of  Trajan’s  Pillar;  a Gothic  capi- 
tal from  stone  church,  Kent;  a Saracenic  panel  from  the  Alhambra; 
a Byzantine  panel  from  Bonn;  and  Gothic  spandrel,  from  stone 
church,  Kent. 

h.  The  students  at  this  point  must  be  able  to  answer  questions  satisfac- 

torily, relating  to  the  human  skeleton. 

Stage  2.  a.  Drawing  the  upper  and  lower  extremities  and  head  of  the  human  skel- 
eton. in  different  positions;  the  names  of  the  details  to  be  written 
thereon. 

6.  Drawing  and  shading,  from  casts  of  antique  features,  consisting  of 
the  nose  and  eye  of  Hadrian,  Bacchante,  Laocoon,  and  a pair  of 
ears,  the  nose  and  mouth  of  Hadrian,  Esculapius,  Antinous,  Venus 
d’Arles.  Juno.  Caracalla,  and  Adonis. 

c.  Drawing  from  copies  of  the  antique,  from  the  flat,  in  pencil. 

d.  Anatomical  drawing  from  casts  of  the  muscular  system,  on  which 

must  be  written  the  names  of  the  principal  bones  and  superficial 
muscles,  — the  origin  and  insertion  of  the  latter  to  be  carefully  ex- 
pressed. 

e.  Drawing  and  shading,  from  casts  from  the  antique  and  from  life,  of 

hands,  leet,  arms,  and  faces. 

f.  Landscape  painting,  from  the  fiat,  in  monochrome  (water  colors). 

g.  Drawing  and  shading,  from  casts  of  antique  busts,  viz.,  Dione,  Venus 

of  Milo,  the  Youug  Hercules,  Mercury,  Juno,  Hercules,  Antinous, 
German  Piisoner,  Ajax,  and  the  Apollo  Belvedere. 


380 


APPENDIX  IV. 


Note.  — Students,  while  passing  through  the  two  preceding  stages,  will,  every 
Monday,  be  engaged  in  drawing  and  painting  in  water-colors,  plant-forms,  mostly 
from  nature;  and  students  in  these  stages,  desirous  of  entering  the  wood-engraving 
or  designing,  or  the  class  of  landscape  painting  in  oil,  from  the  flat  for  introductory 
study,  can  do  so  : but  the  studies  in  the  regular  stages  cannot  be  discontinued. 

At  the  end  of  the  “advanced  stages  ” students  may  enter  any  of  the  technical 
branches  taught  in  the  institution ; such  are  designated  as  follows : — 


PROFESSIONAL  CLASSES. 

Designing. 

Designing  patterns  for  calico  and  oilcloth  printers,  &c. 
Wood  Engraving. 

Lithography. 

Drawing  and  Painting. 

Figure  drawing  and  painting  from  the  antique  and  from  life. 
Landscape  painting  in  oil  and  water  colors. 

Art  Teaching. 


The  work  to  be  done  in  each  of  tho  technical  classes  is  designated  on  another 
printed  sheet. 


lectures. 


In  the  term  commencing  Sept.  12,  1870,  the  following  course  of  lectures  was 
delivered  before  the  students  of  the  school,  by  Prof.  T.  W.  Braidwood. 


Lecture  1,  Oct.  0.  — The  present  social  status  of  woman,  in  connection  with  tho 
objects  of  schools  of  design  tor  women. 

Lecture  2,  Nov.  3.  — Science  in  tho  decoration  of  our  homes. 

Lecture  3,  Dec.  1.  — The  characteristics  of  historic  ornament,  or  how  we  can 
know  architectural  styles,  and  distinguish  all  styles  of  decoration. 

Lecture  4,  Jan.  12.  — Color  practically  considered. 


Lectures  on  Perspective,  on  Fridays,  by  Prof.  E.  Croasdale. 

Lectures  on  Artistic  Anatomy,  on  Wednesdays,  by  Prof.  A.  R.  Thomas. 

Lectures  on  the  General  Principles  of  Art.  by  Prof.  A.  G.  Heaton. 

These  lectures  are  free  to  the  public.  Tickets  of  admission  may  be  had  by  apply- 
ing at  the  school. 


II.  — ENGLISH. 

TIIE  ENGLISH  NATIONAL  ART  TRAINING-SCHOOL  IN 
LONDON. 

The  National  Art  Training  School  at  South  Kensington  is  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  training  art  masters  and  mistresses  for  the  United  Kingdom,  and  for  the  in- 
struction of  students  in  drawing,  designing,  and  modelling,  to  be  applied  to  the 
requirements  of  trade  and  manufactures. 

The  Course  of  Instruction  Is  as  follows  (It  should  be  understood  that  it  is  not 
progressive  in  the  order  in  which  the  stages  are  named):  — 

co  ubs e of  instruction; 

Stage  1.  Linear  drawing  tip  aid  of  instruments. 

a.  Linear  geometry. 

b.  Mechanical  and  machine  drawing,  and  details  of  architecture  from 

copies. 

C.  Linear  perspective. 

Stage  2.  Free-han  l outline  drawing  of  rigid  forms  from  examples  or  copies. 

a.  Objects. 

b.  Ornament. 

Stage  3.  Freehand  outline  drawing  from  the  “ round." 

a.  Models  and  objects. 

b.  Ornament. 

Stage  4.  Shading  from  flat  examples  or  copies. 

a.  Models  and  objects. 

b.  Ornament. 

Stage  5.  Shading  from  the  round  or  solid  forms. 

a.  Models  and  objects. 

b.  Ornament. 

c.  Time  sketching,  and  sketching  from  memory. 


APPENDIX  IV. 


381 


Stage  6. 
S cage  7. 

Stage  8. 


Stage  9. 
Stage  10. 

Stage  11. 

Stage  12. 
Stage  13. 

Stage  14. 

Stage  15. 
Stage  16. 
Stage  17. 

Stage  18. 


Stage  19. 


Stage  20. 

Stage  21. 
Stage  22. 


Stage  23. 


Drawing  from  the  human  figure,  and  animal  forms  from  copies. 

a.  In  outline. 

b.  Shaded. 

Drawing  flowers,  foliage , and  objects  of  natural  history , from  flat 
examples  or  copies. 

a.  In  outline. 

b.  Shaded. 

Drawing  the  human  figure  or  animal  forms  from  the  “ round”  or  na- 
ture. 

a.  In  outline  from  casts. 
b 1.  Shaded  (details). 

6 2 Shaded  (whole  figures). 

c.  Studies  of  the  human  figure,  from  nude  model. 

d.  Studies  of  the  human  figure  draped. 

e.  Time  sketching  and  sketching  from  memory. 

Anatomical  studies. 

а.  Of  the  human  figure. 

б.  Of  animal  forms. 

c.  Of  either  modelled. 

Drawing  flowers,  foliage,  landscape  details,  and  objects  of  natural 
history,  from  nature. 

а.  In  outline. 

б.  Shaded. 

Painting  ornament  from  the  “flat”  or  copies, 
a.  In  monochrome  ) 

6 In  colors  1 ei“er  In  water  colors,  tempera,  or  oil. 

Painting  ornament  from  the  cast,  <fc. 
a In  monochrome,  either  in  water-color,  oil,  or  tempera. 

Painting  {general),  from  flat  examples  or  copies,  flowers,  still  life,  cfc. 

а.  Flowers  or  natural  objects,  in  water-color,  in  oil,  or  in  tempera. 

б.  Landscapes. 

Painting  (general),  direct  from  nature. 

а.  Flowers,  or  still  life,  in  water-color,  oil,  or  tempera,  without  back- 

grounds. 

б.  Landscapes. 

Painting  groups  as  composition  of  colors. 

a.  In  water-color,  oil,  or  tempera. 

Painting  the  hum  m figure  or  animals  in  monochrome  from,  casts. 

a.  In  oil,  water-color,  or  tempera. 

Painting  the  human  figure  or  animals  in  color, 

а.  From  the  flat  or  copies. 

б.  From  nature,  nude  or  draped. 

C.  Time,  sketches  and  compositions. 

Modelling  ornament. 

а.  Elementary,  from  casts. 

б.  Advanced,  from  casts. 

c.  From  drawings. 

d.  Time  sketches  from  examples,  and  from  memory. 

Modelling  the  human  figure  or  animals. 

а.  Elementary,  from  casts  of  hands,  feet,  masks,  &c. 

б.  Advanced,  from  casts  or  solid  examples. 

c.  From  drawings. 

d.  From  nature,  nude  or  draped. 

Modelling  fruits,  flowers,  foliage,  and  objects  of  natural  history , from 
nature. 

Time  sketches  in  clay  of  the  human  figure,  or  animals,  from  nature. 
Elementary  design. 

a.  Studies  treating  natural  objects  ornamentally. 

b.  Ornamental  arrangements  to  fill  given  spaces  in  monochrome, 
o.  Ornamental  arrangements  to  fill  given  spaces  in  color. 

d.  Studies  of  historic  styles  of  ornament,  drawn  or  modelled. 

Applied  designs , technical,  or  miscellaneous  studies. 

a.  Machine  and  mechanical  drawing,  plan  drawing,  mapping,  and  sur- 

veys done  from  actual  measurement. 

b.  Architectural  design. 

e.  Surface  design. 
d.  Plastic  design. 


382 


APPENDIX  IV. 


ART  CERTIFICATES  OF  THIRD  GRADE. 

Musters  and  Mistresses  of  Schools  of  Art  must  hold  one  or  more  of  the  Certifi- 
cates of  Third  Grade. 

The  twenty-three  stages  of  instruction  are  divided  into  six  groups. 

Certificates  of  competency  to  teach  the  subjects  included  in  each  group  are  given 
to  candidates  who  pass  the  necessary  examinations. 

These  are  called  certificates  of  the  third  grade. 

The  following  are  the  groups  which  form  the  subjects  of  certificates 
Group  1.  Elementary  drawing  and  coloring. 

stages  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 10,  and  13. 

Group  2.  Painting,  with  examination  in  styles  of  art,  and  in  the  elementary  princi- 
ples of  ornament. 

STAGES  11,  12,  14,  15,  AND  22. 

Group  3.  The  figure  drawn  and  painted,  with  examination  in  the  historic  styles  of 
ornament. 

STAGES  8,  9,  10,  AND  17. 

Group  4.  Modelling  ornament,  with  examination  in  styles  of  art,  and  in  the  elemen  - 
tary  principles  of  ornament. 

ST  ACES  18,  20.  AND  22. 

Group  5.  Modelling  the  figure,  wi  ll  examination  in  the  historic  styles  of  ornament. 

STAGES  8.  9.  19.  AND  21. 

Group  6.  Technical  instruction. 

EXAMINATION'S. 

The  examinations  of  the  third  grade  will  take  place  annually  at  the  offices  of  the 
department.  South  Kensington,  in  the  month  of  February. 

Candidates  who  are  desirous  of  passing  sa.-li  examinations  must  forward  their 
names,  together  with  all  the  requisite  works,  to  the  secretary  of  the  department, 
on  the  first  Saturday  in  February.  They  must  state  the  group  or  groups  for  which 
they  seek  to  obtain' certificates.  These  works  if  accepted,  will  be  retained  by  the 
department.  Works  of  unsuccessful  candidates,  and  candidates  not  proposing  to 
earn  payments  from  the  State,  will  be  returned.  They  will  be  informed  whether 
their  drawings  have  been  accepted,  and  whether  permission  can  be  granted  to  them 
to  present  themselves  for  examination. 

These  examinations  will  take  place  before  the  inspector-general  for  art.  assisted 
by  other  examiners  who  may  be  associated  with  him.  They  will  be  conducted 
partly  by  written  exercises,  and  partly  by  studies  made  in  a given  time.  Each 
candidate  may  bo  required  to  teach  a class  in  the  presence  of  the  examiner. 

FIRST  GROUP. 

Candidates  for  certificates  for  the  first  group  : — 

1.  If  they  have  attended  the  training-school  of  the  department,  at  South  Ken- 
sington. they  must  have  obtained  a recommendation  for  admission  to  examination 
from  tile  head-master.  Candidates  from  the  provincial  or  other  schools  will  be 
required  to  execute  an  extra  work  in  the  presence  of  the  examiner. 

2.  They  must  be  prepared  to  instruct  a class  in  the  preseuce  of  tlJb  examiners 
cither  in  free-hand  drawing,  geometrical  drawing,  perspective,  or  model  drawing. 

3.  To  sketch,  in  a given  time,  a group  of  models,  placed  by  the  examiners  for  that 
purpose. 

4.  To  solve,  in  writing,  questions  on  geometry,  perspective,  orthographic  projec- 
tion,* and  the  rudiments  of  constructive  architecture.* 

For  the  first  group,  the  following  works  are  necessary,  ten  in  number:  — 

Stage  lo.  A sheet  of  geometrical  problems. 

“ 16.  A sheet  of  mechanical  drawings.* 

“ Ic.  A sheet  of  perspective  diagrams. 

“ 1<7.  A sheet  of  architectural  details.* 

“ 3.  An  outline  from  the  Madeleine  pilaster. 

“ 6 a.  A sheet  of  drawings  from  models,  shaded  in  chalk  or  pencils. 

“ 56.  A sheet  of  ornament  shaded  from  the  cast  iD  chalk. 

“ 0.  An  outline  of  the  figure  from  the  flat. 

“ 10.  A sheet  of  foliage  drawn  from  nature. 

“ 13.  A sheet  of  flowers  painted  from  the  flat. 


* Female  candidates  are  not  examined  in  mechanical  or  architectural  drawing. 


APPENDIX  IV. 


383 


SECOND  GROUP. 

For  the  second  group  each  candidate : — 

1.  Must  already  have  obtained  a certificate  for  the  first  group. 

2.  Will  be  required  to  sketch  in  color,  in  a given  time,  a group  placed  by  the 
examiners  for  that  purpose,  using  any  medium  or  vehicle  which  the  examiners  may 
propose. 

3.  Will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a paper  of  technical  questions  on  art, 
and  on  the  general  principles  and  execution  of  t.ie  several  historic  schools,  and  a 
paper  of  questions  on  the  nomenclature  of  structural  botany.* 

For  the  second  group,  the  following  works  are  required,  six  in  number  : — 

Stage  13  or  14.  A landscape  in  oil  from  nature,  or  from  some  approved  example. 

“ 12.  A painting  of  ornament  in  monochrome  from  the  cast,  in  oil  or 

tempera. 

“ 14.  A study  of  flowers  painted  from  nature,  in  water-colors. 

“ 15.  A study  of  a group  as  a composition  of  color,  in  oil. 

“ 22c.  A sheet  of  at  least  two  studies  of  ornamental  arrangements  in 

color. 

“ 22 a.  A sheet  of  studies  of  some  plant  or  plants  botanically  analyzed  with 

a view  to  ornamental  details. 

“ 22 d.  A set  of  studies  executed  during  the  period  of  training,  from  some 

one  class  of  objects  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  suffi- 
ciently extensive  to  represent  the  history  of  the  class  selected. 

THIRD  GROUP. 

For  the  third  group  each  candidate  — 

1.  Must  already  have  obtained  certificates  for  the  first  and  second  groups. 

2.  Will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a paper  of  questions  on  the  anatomy  of 
the  human  figure. 

3.  To  answer,  in  writing,  a piper  on  the  history  of  ornament  of  the  various 
periods  and  styles;  and  a paper  of  questions  on  the  elementary  principles  of  orna- 
ment, and  on  the  history  and  peculiarities  of  the  ornamentation  of  the  class  chosen 
for  illustration  in  the  drawings  sent  up  in  Stage  22<i. 

4.  To  draw  in  a given  time  the  bones  or  muscles  within  the  outline  of  an  antique 
figure,  from  memory. 

5.  The  living  model  will  be  posed  for  a time-study  by  each  candidate. 

From  candidates  who  are.  or  have  been,  students  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  have 
been  there  admitted  to  study  from  the  living  model,  this  last  exercise  will  not  be 
required. 

For  the  third  group,  the  following  works  are  necessary,  seven  in  number  : — 
Stage  8 6.  An  antique  figure,  shaded  from  the  cast,  in  chalk. 

“ 8c.  A study  in  chalk  from  the  living  model. 

“ 9.  The  bones  and  muscles  placed  within  outlines  of  an  antique  figure. 

“ 16.  A painting  of  the  human  figure,  from  a picture  in  oil. 

“ 17a.  A painting  of  the  nude  or  draped  figure  from  the  life,  in  oil. 

“ 22(f.f  Varied  studies  of  historic  styles  of  ornament,  sufficiently  extensive 

to  represent  the  history  of  the  classes  selected,  sketched  from  works 
in  the  Museum,  the  authority  in  each  case  being  appended.  If  they 
are  from  colored  ornament,  the  sketches  are  to  be  colored  also. 

FOURTH  GROUP. 

For  the  fourth  group,  each  candidate  — 

1.  Must  already  have  obtained  a certificate  for  the  first  group. 

2.  Will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a paper  of  questions  on  the  elementary 
principles  of  ornament,  and  on  the  history  and  peculiarities  of  the  ornamentation  of 
the  class  chosen  for  illustration  in  the.  drawings  set  up  in  Stage  22 cl. 

3.  To  sketch  from  memory  elementary  details  of  ornament,  and,  in  a given  time, 
to  model  a piece  of  ornament,  in  low  relief,  from  a print  or  drawing. 

For  the  fourth  group,  the  following  works  are  required,  five  in  number  : — 

Stage  18a.  A modelled  study  of  ornament  from  the  cast. 

" 186.  A modelled  study  of  ornament  from  a drawing. 

“ 20.  A modelled  study  of  flowers  or  foliage  from  nature. 

“ 22.  A modelled  study  of  any  one  of  the  sections  of  this  stage. 


* Based  on  Lindley’s  “ School  Botany.” 

t It  is  intended  by  these  studies  to  test  the  knowledge  of  ornament  possessed  by  the 
candidate:  be  should  therefore  send  a sheet  or  sheets  of  the  most  characteristic  details  of 
the  best  periods  of  the  various  styles,  and  should  give  the  source  from  whence  the  examples 
are  derived.  Candidates  from  provincial  schools  must  use  for  the  same  purpose  the  works 
circulated  by  the  department,  such  as  casts,  eleeirotyues,  photographs,  books,  prints,  4sc. 


384 


APPENDIX  IV 


Stags  22a.  A sheet  of  studies  of  some  plant  or  plants,  botanically  analyzed  with  a 
view  to  display  their  ornamental  details,  drawn  or  modelled. 

“ 22 <1.  A set  of  studies  executed  during  the  period  of  training,  from  some  one 

class  of  objects  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  sufficiently 
extensive  to  represent  the  history  of  the  class  selected. 

FIFTH  GROUP. 

For  the  fifth  group  each  candidate  — 

1.  Must  already  have  obtained  a certificate  for  the  first  group. 

2.  Will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a paper  of  questions  on  the  anatomy  of 
the  human  frame. 

3.  To  answer,  in  writing,  a paper  on  the  history  of  ornament  of  the  various 
periods  and  styles. 

4 To  make,  in  a given  time,  a sketch  in  low  relief,  from  a print  or  drawing,  of  an 
antique  figure;  and  to  give  the  anatomical  details  from  memory. 

5.  The  living  model  will  be  posed  for  a time-study  by  each  candidate. 

From  candidates  who  are,  or  have  been,  students  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
there  admitted  to  study  from  the  living  model,  this  last  exercise  will  not  be  required. 

For  the  fifth  group,  the  following  works  are  required,  six  in  number:  — 

Stage  S.  An  antique  figure,  shaded  from  the  cast. 

9.  An  anatomical  rendering  of  an  antique  figure,  modelled. 

“ 9a.  A drawing  of  the  skeleton  placed  within  the  outline  of  an  antique 

figure. 

“ 19.  A model  of  an  antique  figure  in  the  round,  rendered  in  relief. 

“ 20.  A model  of  the  human  figure  from  nature,  nude  or  draped. 

“ 20 d.*  Varied  studies  of  the  relief  ornament,  of  historic  styles,  sketched 

from  the  casts,  carvings,  metal  works.  Sc.,  in  the  Museum  of  the 
department,  with  written  authorities  for  -each,  and  sufficiently 
extensive  to  represent  the  history  of  the  various  classes  selected. 

SIXTn  GROUP. 

1.  Certificates  in  the  sixth  group  are  granted,  on  proof  of  competency  to  teach  (a) 
domestic  architectural  drawing,  and  {!>)  the  special  application  of  the  ornament 
to  plastic  and  surface  decoration  for  various  fubrics,  manufactures,  and  architectural 
purposes. 

2.  The  candidates  for  a certificate  for  architectural  drawing  must  have  already 
passed  in  G roup  1 ; must  send  in  a tinted  drawing,  from  measurement  of  some  archi- 
tectural subject,  and  a design  with  plans  and  sections,  for  permission  to  compete: 
he  will  have  to  answer  a paper  on  the  details  of  architectural  construction,  and  on 
the  characteristics  of  the  architectural  ornament  of  various  historic  styles  and 
periods.*  and  to  make  a design  from  specifications  of  some  architectural  subject  in 
the  presence  of  the  examiner. 

3.  Candidates  for  a special  certificate  on  ornament,  who  have  been  educated  in  the 
training-school,  must  have  previously  taken  certificates  for  Groups  1,  2.  and  3.  or 
1.  4 and  .V  They  will  be  required  to  send  in,  for  permission  to  compete,  two  original 
works,  painted  or  mo  lolled,  in  order  to  show  their  technical  skill  as  well  as  their 
power  of  designing;  also  a monograph,  drawn  up  by  themselves,  of  at  least  two 
historic  styles,  illustrated  by  sketches  from  works  or  drawings  in  the  Museum. 
They  will  lie  examined  by  papers  on  the  elements,  history,  and  application  of  orna- 
ment, and  will  be  required  to  design  some  worn,  in  the  presence  of  the  examiners. 

4.  The  character  of  the  ciami  lotions  in  this  group  for  special  certificates  of  tech- 
nical knowledge  will  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  applications  for  examina- 
tion ; and  the  conditions  will  be  declared  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

TRAINING-CLASS. 

1.  Students  who  have  paid  fees  for  two  consecutive  sessions  are  entitled,  on 
passing  the  whole  of  the  second-grade  examinations,  to  an  admission  to  their  class 
for  one  year  at  a remission  of  half  the  usual  fee.  They  arc  entitled  to  a continu- 
ance of  the  same  privilege  for  a second  year  oniy,  if  they  have  obtained  a “ pass  ” for 
merit  of  work,  or  a prize  or  medal  in  the  annual  national  competition. 

Students  who  have  paid  fees  as  above  are  entitled,  ou  passing  satisfactory  exam- 


* It  is  intended  by  these  studies  to  test  the  knowledge  of  ornament  possessed  by  tbe 
candidate:  ho  should  therefore  sen  l the  rajs;  characteristic  details  of  the  best  periods  of 
the  v.ari  us  s vies,  an  1 should  give  the  source  from  whence  the  examples  are  derived. 
Candidates  f.  an  provincial  schools  must  use  for  the  same  purpose  the  works  circulated  by 
the  department,  such  as  casts,  electrotypes,  photographs,  books,  prints,  Ac. 

4 The  text-b  ►■Us  are  t'e-  -russon's  " History  of  Architect  ore,”  and  Parker's  “ Glossary  of 
Terms  used  in  Architecture.” 


APPENDIX  IV. 


385 


fnations  in  any  three,  or  if  females  in  two,  of  the  subjects  of  the  first  certificate,  to 
free  admission,  which  will  last  for  one  year,  and  is  renewable  if  the  first  certificate  be 
fully  taken  within  that  time.  After  obtaining  the  first  certificate,  students  will  be 
continued  to  be  admitted  free,  provided  a “ pass  ” for  merit  of  work,  or  a prize  or 
medal  in  the  annual  national  competition  be  taken  annually;  or,  in  lieu  of  these, 
some  more  advanced  studies  of  drawing  from  the  antique,  or  painting.  Students 
who  have  obtained  the  first  certificate  are  also  eligible  to  compete  for  weekly  allow- 
ances, according  to  their  progress  in  the  school  and  the  certificate  obtained,  of  five 
shillings,  ten  shillings,  or  fifteen  shillings,  in  return  for  which  they  have  to  perform 
certain  duties  as  teachers,  and  must  engage  to  accept  the  situations  to  which  they 
are  recommended. 


MAINTENANCE  ALLOWANCES. 

1.  A limited  number  ouly  of  students  may  compete  with  students  of  local  schools 
of  art.  for  maintenance  allowances  of  twenty  shillings,  or  twenty-five  shillings 
weekly.  No  student  will  be  eligible  to  receive  such  higher  payments  who  has  not 
taken  one  art  certificate,  or  a science  certificate  in  mechanical  drawing,  or  building 
construction.  Such  allowances  will  be  granted  for  one  ses*ion  only.  They  may  be 
renewed  at  the  discretion  of  the  department,  according  to  the  progress  and  conduct 
of  the  student,  and  the  demand  for  certificated  teachers.  No  student  in  training  will 
be  allowed  to  remain  as  such  after  he  has  obtained  five  certificates.  Besides  their 
studies  in  the  training-school,  students  in  training  will  be  required  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  parochial  and  district  schools  as  a part  of  their  training. 

Application  for  admission  to  the  training-classes  must  be  made  the  first  Saturday 
in  February,  or  the  first  Saturday  in  September. 

2.  With  a view  to  assist  female  students  in  obtaining  the  necessary  qualifications 
to  become  art  teachers.*  admission  to  the  training-school  for  females  is  regulated 
by  the  rules  stated  above:  they  may  then  receive  an  allowance  of  from  five  shillings 
to  fifteen  shillings  a week,  according  to  vacancies  on  the  list,  for  a period  not  ex- 
ceeding two  years,  to  enable  them  to  obtain  the  certificate  of  the  third  grade. 
If  their  progress  and  promise  justify  it.  rhey  may  (having  obtained  the  second  cer- 
tificate with  n the  two  years)  continue  to  receive  an  allowance  for  another  year, 
while  working  for  the  third  certificate. 


IIT.  — FRENCH. 


fiCOLE  JIimCIPALE  DE  DESSIN  ET  DE  SCULPTURE. 

Dirig&e  par  M.  Legmen  fils , Sculpteur,  Hue  <Le  Chabrol,  18. 

Cette  ficole,  fondee  en  1835  et  dirigee  depuis  1854  par  11.  Lequien  fils,  eat  ouverte 
tons  les  soirs,  pendant  toute  l’annee,  de  8 a 10  heures,  et  e=t  frequentee  par  ISO 
eieves. 

L’enseignement  de  1’Eeole  comprend : — 

1-  L’etnde  du  dessin  de  la  figure.  D’apres  1’estampe  d’apres  la  bosse,  d’apres  le 
modele  vivaut. 

2.  L’etude  du  dessin  de  l’ornement. 

3.  L’etude  du  dessin  de  fleurs.  D’apres  lVstampe  et  d’apres  nature. 

4.  L’etude  du  modelage.  Figure  et  oruemeut. 

5.  L’etude  du  dessin  geometrique : — 

1».  Construction  graphique  de  divers  problemes  de  la  geometrie  plane. 

Applications  ; dallage,  carrelage,  bordure,  etc. 

2°.  Etude  des  proportions. 

Applications ; divers  assemblages  des  bois,  pans  de  bois,  combles.  plan- 
chers,  escaiiers, plans  de  batiments  epures  de  coupes  de  pierre,  decou- 
page  de  metaux  en  feuilles. 

S'1.  Element  d’architecture ; lavis. 


* Should  opportunities  offer  for  a female  st u ient  in  training  to  employ  a portion  of  her 
time  in  teaching,  she  may  accept  eng  tgetnen.s,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  head-master, 
an  l receive  a reduced  allowance,  proportionate  to  the  lime  remaining  for  studies  connected 
with  her  cerilricate;  it  being  understood  that  the  duration  of  the  allowances  will  in  no  case 
exceed  three  years.  It  must  be  distinctly  understood,  that,  at  that  termination  of  the 
allowance,  the  department  in  no  degree  undertakes  to  provide  or  obtain  employment  as 
teachers  for  the  male  or  female  students  so  trained. 


386 


APPENDIX  IV. 


flCOLE  MUNICIPALE  DES  BEAUX-ART3  ET  DES  SCIEXCE3  INDUS- 
TRIELLE8  DE  TOULOUSE. 

Dlrigie  par  M A.  de  Perpessac. 

L’fccolo  Municipale  des  Beaux- Arts  et  des  Sciences  industrielles  de  Toulouse, 
dont  l’origine  reraonte  au-delk  de  1720,  est  essentiellement  gratuite. 

El le  compte  une  vingtaine  de  professeurs  et  de  cinq  cents  eleves  a six  cents  (cette 
a mice  033). 

Les  cloves,  presque  tous  de  jeunes  artisans,  sont  toujours  externes,  et  meme  ils 
passent  elmque  jour  alternativement  de  leurs  ateliers  dans  l’ecole  et  de  l’ecole  dans 
lours  ateliers. 

On  y enseigne  : dessin,  peinture.  architecture,  dessin  graphique.  particulifcrement 
dcs  machines,  perspective  chimie  industrielle.  m.itheruatiqu  s,  aritlnneiique,  algfe- 
brc,  go  metric  elemcntaire  et  descriptive,  stcreotomie,  mecaniquo,  etc. 

La  dcpensc  annuclle  do  la  vitle  pour  cette  ecole  est  de  2.703  a 2.800  fr. ; dont  un 
prix  de  4.500  fr.  destine  ii  envoyer  etudier  a Paris  pendant  trois  ans,  un  dleve  de 
peinture,  sculpture,  ou  architecture. 

OUTRAGES  EXPOSES,  1863. 

(1°.)  5 Ardoises.  — Specimen  des  premiers  travaux  des  d Hives,  traces  k main  lc've, 
sans  instruments. 

3 Feuilles.  — T races  executes  sans  instruments,  suite  des  precedents. 

7 Dessins  au  trait,  d’apres  des  modeles  en  relief. 

2 Totes  au  crayon  (copies). 

7 Dessins  ombres,  d’apres  des  modules  en  relief. 

3 TOtes  d’aprds  la  ronde  bossc. 

1 Portefeuille.  — Dessins  pour  aider  a (’intelligence  de  la  mdthode,  d’aprfes 

les  reliefs. 

2 Tableaux.  — Compositions  d’nprks  un  programme  donne  (Mort  d’Eurayle). 

Deux  prix  ex  ic/iie,  do  4,500  francs  chacun. 

(2».)  2 Deus  groupes  composes  d’une  grande  tetc  et  de  quelques  fragments.— 
D’apres  la  ronde  bosse. 

2 Academies.  — D’apres  l’antique  (ronde  bosse). 

3 Academies. — D’aprks  le  modele  vivant. 

5 fcpures  de  geometric  descriptive.  — Coupe  de  pierres,  etc.  D’aprfcs  les 
leijons  orales  du  eours. 

1 Album,  specimen  de  ceux  que  font  les  dlkves  de  sculpture. 

11  Dessins  divers,  ii  la  plume  (copies). 

8 Id.  d’apres  nature. 

(3”.)  1 Dessin  d’apres  un  croquis  (placd  a cdtd). 

0 Dessins.  — Projections  diverscs  et  coupes  de  corps  geometriqucs  d’apres 

des  croquis  leves.  mesures  et  cotes  par  les  (Sieves. 

3 Dessins  Leves  de  bailments,  d’apres  des  croquis  leves,  mesures  et  cOtds 

par  les  eleves. 

7 Dessins  Leves  de  machines,  d’anrks  des  croquis  lkves,  mesures  et  cotds 
par  les  elkves  sur  les  machines  mC-raes. 

1 Epure  de  perspective  (cube). 

1 Id.  Intdrieur  d’une  chapelle,  d’aprks  un  croquis  Ikves  et 

mesure  sur  les  lieux. 

1 Id..  fltude  d’orabres. 

1 Dessin.  — Etude  de  dessin  typographique. 

2 Lavis  d’architccture  (copies). 

1 Amplilie. 

2 Dessins.  — Projet  d’apres  un  programme  donne. 

4 Dessins.  — Composition  d’apres  un  programme  donn6.  Prix  de  4,500  fr. 

SCULPTURE. 

1 Peuillc  d’achante.  d’aprks  nature. 

1 Tele  de  Vitellius.  d’apres  le  buste. 

1 Bas-relief,  d’apres  I’antique. 

1 Academic,  d’apres  le  modele  vivant. 

1 Bas-relief.  — Composition  d’aprks  un  programme  donne  (Modon  aux  pieds 
de  Toletnaque),  grand  prix  de  4,500  francs. 


387 


APPENDIX  II] 


feCOLE  SPECIALS  DE  DESSIN-  APPLIQUfi  AUX  ARTS  INDUSTRIES 
POUR  LES  JEUNES  PERSONNES. 

Dirigeepar  Mademoiselle  Henriette  Lecluse , sous  le  patronage  de  M.  le  maire  du 
XVII 6 arrondissement.  Impasse  Saint  Louis , 3 ( Batignolles , Paris). 

La  figure,  les  fleurs,  et  l’ornement  forraent  les  bases  principals  des  etudes  qui 
sont  suivies  dans  cette  ecole.  Les  jeunes  fillies  qui  veulent  devenir  peintres.  gra- 
veurs,  lithographes,  ornementistes,  eventaillistes,  celles  aussi  qui  desireut  colorier 
et  corriger  des  photographies,  dessiner  et  colorier  des  cartonnages,  etc.,  peuvent 
acquerir  dans  cette,  ecole  l'instruction  necessaire  au  but  qu’elles  se  proposent. 

Un  certain  nombre  d’eieves  sont  admises  gratuiteraent.  Les  autres  le  sont  moyen- 
nant  3 franc  par  mois. 

Les  cours  out  lieu  les  mardis,  jeudis,  et  samedis,  de  1 heure  a 4heurs. 

Etudes. 

1.  Element  du  dessin. 

2.  iCtude  de  la  tete,  d’apres  l’estampe. 

3.  fitude  de  la  tete,  d’apr&s  la  ronde  bosse. 

4.  £tude  de  l’ornement  d’apres  l’estampe. 

5.  iCtude  d’ornement  d’apres  la  ronde  bosse. 

6.  Ltude  de  la  figure  di  ap’ee,  d’apres  l’estampe  et  d’apres  l’antique. 

7.  Pastels,  figures,  fleurs,  animaux. 

8.  Paysages  d’aprfcs  l’estami>e. 

9.  Elements  de  perspective. 

10.  Peinture  a l’huile  et  mignature. 


IV.  — GERMAN  SCHOOL. 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL  OF  ART  AT  NUREMBERG,  BAVARIA,  GERMANY. 

COURSE  OP  STUDIES. 

Drawing. 

1.  Ornamental  drawing,  from  objects.  Eighteen  hours. 

2.  Drawing  fz-om  the  antiques.  Twenty-four  hours. 

3.  Drawing  from  life. 

Painting. 

1.  From  models  in  plaster. 

2.  From  life. 

3.  Original  compositions. 

Sculpture. 

1.  Architectural  and  ornamental  models,  from  drawings.  Eighteen  hours. 

2.  Finished  objects  from  working  drawings. 

3.  From  antiques.  Twelve  hours. 

4.  From  life.  Twelve  hours. 

5.  Objects  of  oiiginal  design. 

6.  Wood-carving. 

7.  Engraving. 

8.  Modelling  and  casting  in  metal. 

Architecture. 

1.  Construction  drawings. 

2.  Study  of  ancient  construction. 

3.  Renaissance,  architecture,  and  practical  study  of  the  same. 

4.  Gothic  Architecture,  and  application  to  churches  and  civil  architecture. 
Working  Drawings  of  Designs. 

Completion  of  Autistic  and  Industrial  Designs. 

Theoretical  Branches. 

Perspective,  and  shades  and  shadows. 

Anatomy. 

History  of  art. 

Photography. 

Casting  in  Plaster. 

Cabinet  Work 

Collections  of  objects  connected  with  the  several  departments  are  contained  in  the 
building. 


388 


APPENDIX  IV. 


The  school  year  is  divided  into  two  terms.  The  winter  term  is  from  November  1 
to  the  last  of  February.  The  summer  term  is  from  April  1st  to  August  24th.  Be- 
side the  vacation  between  the  terms,  there  are  the  following:  from  Wednesday 
before  until  Tuesday  after  Easter;  from  Wednesday  before  until  the  Tuesday  fol- 
lowing Pentecost ; Christmas  holidays. 


CONDITIONS  OF  ENTRANCE. 

1.  Each  applicant  must  have  reached  the  age  of  sixteen. 

2.  Xliist  have  a good  moral  character. 

3.  Must  have  attended  a preparatory  school  in  drawing  and  modelling. 

4 Must  exhibit  specimens  of  his  work. 

5.  Must  have  the  permission  of  his  parents  or  guardian. 

7.  He  is  allowed  to  enter  at  the  commencement  of  the  first  term. 

8.  Iiis  acceptance  by  the  school  is  shown  by  giving  him  a ticket  of  membership. 

9.  Listeners  can  be  admitted  on  application  to  the  director. 

10.  Each  student  is  obliged  to  obey  strictly  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  school. 

11.  No  student  will  be  allowed  to  pass  into  an  advanced  class  until  he  is  perfectly 

qualified  to  do  so. 

12.  The  student  may  enter  the  classes  for  which  he  is  prepared. 

13.  The  terms  of  tuition  must  be  paid  in  advance.  Residents,  five  fl. ; Foreigners, 

ten  fl. ; Listeners,  fifteen  fl 

14.  For  the  use  of  the  -materials  used  in  instruction,  an  extra  fee  of  twenty-four 

kreuzers  per  term  is  charged. 

10.  No  student  is  allowed  to  be  absent  without  sufficient  excuse. 

17.  Any  student  violating  the  above  rules.  Nc.,  shall  be  reprimanded  by  the  pro- 

fessor. The  third  time  ho  shall  be  reported  to  the  director. 

18.  If  he  is  absent  six  days  in  succession  without  a good  excuse,  he  may  be  dis- 

charged from  the  school. 

19.  Ill  treatment  of  the  professors,  and  ungcntlcmanly  conduct,  may  also  result  in 

dismissal. 

20.  Copper-plate  engravings,  &e..  may  be  used  within  the  limits  of  the  building  on 

application  to  the  proper  authority 

21.  Books  without  plates  may  be  taken  nome  with  permission  from  the  person  in 

charge  of  such. 

22.  Any  damage  done  to  the  collection  must  be  paid  for. 

23.  The  students  are  marked  at  the  end  of  each  term  as  follows:  — 

0,  Extraordinary;  '/i,  not  quite  so  good:  1.  very  good;  '. , pretty  good;  2, 
good;  %,  nearly  good;  3.  satisfactory;  , nearly  satisfactory;  4,  mid- 
dling. 

24.  A fee  of  twelve  kreuzers  will  be  charged  for  the  mark.  For  special  marks, 

and  at  the  end  of  the  course,  a fee  of  thirty  kreuzers  will  be  charged. 

25.  A student  must  have  visited  the  school  at  least  one  term  to  receive  a mark. 

20.  An  exhibition  occurs  every  two  years. 

27.  Each  student  is  obliged  to  furnish  works  for  this  exhibition. 

2S.  The  students  in  the  elass  of  carving  must  take  care  that  their  work  is  properly 
finished. 

29.  A third  part  of  the  collection  is  selected  by  the  professors  for  the  collection  of 

the  school. 

30.  Students  are  obliged  to  leave  part  of  their  work  as  property  of  the  school. 

31.  The  best  works  are  photographed.  Each  student  is  entitled  to  a copy  of  his 

work. 

32.  All  plaster  casts,  carvings,  castings  in  bronze,  and  engravings,  done  by  the 

student,  are  to  be  considered  ns  belonging  to  the  school. 

33.  From  the  best  works  the  student  is  entitled  to  one  copy. 

34.  If  the  student  does  not  fulfil  the  above  conditions,  his  mark  is  withheld  from 

him. 

35.  After  the  exhibition,  the  student  shall  receive  those  works  not  held  by  the 

school. 


RULES  AND  REGULATIONS. 

1.  The  chief  management  of  the  school,  as  regards  discipline,  &c„  is  in  the  hands 

of  the  director. 

2.  If,  on  account  of  absence  or  other  cause,  the  director  is  prevented  from  attend- 

ing to  his  duties,  he  is  to  appoint  a director  pro  lem.,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  Minister  of  Education. 

3.  Each  teacher  is  to  perform  his  duties  uninfluenced  by  any  outside  matters,  and 

is  to  be  governed  by  Article  9 of  the  By-Laws  of  May  26.  1818. 

4.  The  acceptance  of  a position  in  any  other  school  is  to  be  allowed  only  by  per- 

mission of  the  aforesaid  minister. 

6.  Rooms  are  provided  in  the  building  for  the  use  of  the  professors  and  teachers, 
that  they  may  carry  on  their  work  undisturbed.  The  fruits  of  their  labors 


APPENDIX  IV. 


389 


are  to  be  placed  before  the  students  to  serve  as  examples.  All  professors 
are  obliged,  when  pr.  sent,  to  see  that  the  rules  and  regulations  are  obeyed. 

6.  It  is  not  alone  the  duty  of  the  school  to  see  that  the  course  of  studies  is  carried 

out,  but  to  see  that  finished  works  in  its  several  departments  are  produced. 

7.  Every  teacher  is  obliged  to  assist  in  the  carrying-out  of  these  works,  and  is  to 

be  reimbursed  from  the  funds  appropriated  for  that  purpose. 

8.  All  business  of  the  school,  such  as  contracts,  &c.,  is  to  be  referred  to  the  direc- 

tor through  his  secretary. 

9.  All  contracts  are  closed  by  the  Board  of  Managers  after  an  understanding  is 

had  with  the  professors  interested : they  are  then  handed  to  the  guarantor, 
who  is  to  see  that  they  are  properly  executed. 

10.  All  private  business  of  the  officers  of  the  school  is,  of  course,  beyond  control 

of  the  managers. 

11.  All  works  of  the  students  which  are  to  be  exhibited  are  to  be  handed  to  the 

director  at  least  two  months  before  the  exhibition. 

12.  Each  teacher  must  report  the  progress  of  the  students  under  his  charge, — ■ 

printed  lists  being  furnished  for  this  purpose.  These  reports  assist  in  mak- 
ing up  the  annual  report. 

13.  At  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  term,  the  professors  and  teachers  of  the 

school  are  to  come  together  to  discuss  matters  relating  to  the  same 

14.  At  the  exhibition,  all  works  of  the  exhibiter,  and,  if  necessary,  certificates  as 

to  the  need  of  an  examination,  are  to  be  furnished.  The  result  of  the 
examination,  at  the  motion  of  the  director,  shall  be  determined  by  a vote 
of  the  faculty. 

15.  The  secretary  attends  to  all  correspondence  and  business  of  the  school,  except- 

ing that  relating  to  the  finances,  under  the  direction  of  the  director. 

16.  The  finances  are  conducted  according  to  regulations  made  by  the  Minister  of 

Education. 

17.  The  house  inspector  has  charge  of  the  order  of  the  building  in  general,  and  of 

the  collections  in  the  same. 

18.  The  materials,  &c.,  used  are  to  be  provided  according  to  the  rules  governing 

the  same. 

19.  The  photographic  department  copies,  upon  an  order  from  the  director,  works 

of  the  students  wtrch  have  been  selected  by  the  professors  for  this  purpose. 
The  permission  for  the  publication  of  all  works  of  the  students  must  be 
granted  by  the  director. 

20.  The  casting  in  plaster  is  done  by  a person  employed  for  the  purpose.  The 

selection  of  the  models  is  made  by  the  professor  having  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment. When  the  model  is  very  large,  permission  must  be  obtained  from  the 
director. 

21.  In  the  cabinet-maker’s  department,  meritorious  works  of  the  students  in  carv- 

ing are  reproduced.  Objects  are  also  constructed  from  drawings.  * 

22.  The  house  servant  is  to  keep  the  building,  &c.,  in  order,  subject  to  the  order  of 

his  superiors. 


INDEX 


INDEX, 


A. 

American  schools  of  art,,  110. 

Applied  ornament,  211. 

Apprentices,  English,  attend  draw- 
ing classes,  13. 

Arbitrary  regulations,  68. 

Architectural  sculpture,  234 ; en- 
richments, 259. 

Architecture,  symbolism  in,  283 ; 
ancient  styles  of,  284 ; modern 
styles  of,  285;  Egyptian,  286. 

Art  and  architecture,  symbolism  in, 
283. 

Art  as  an  occupation  for  women, 
163  ; association  of,  witl}  religion, 
298;  of  the  future,  301. 

Art  degrees,  examination  for,  30. 

Art  education,  commercial  value  of, 
14 ; advantages  to  be  derived 
from,  20. 

Art  school,  site  and  plans  for,  82. 

Art  study,  adaptation  of,  to  women, 

161. 

Art  teaching  in  public  schools,  40. 

B. 

Bail,  Prof,  of  Yale  College,  on  the 
value  of  art  education  to  artisans, 
15. 

Bartholomew,  Prof,  of  drawing  in 
Boston  schools,  on  the  commer- 
cial value  of  drawing,  16. 


Beauty,  qualities  of,  275. 

Berlin-wool  work,  not  worth  the  at- 
tention of  accomplished  women, 
204. 

Birkenhead  school,  87. 

Blackboard  system  of  teaching  draw 
ing,  48,  70. 

Blocks  or  rows  of  houses  an  art 
evil,  48,  70. 

Boston,  favorable  position  of,,  for 
being  an  art  centre,  21 ; Art  Mu- 
seum of,  26 ; promptness  of  city 
of,  to  carry  out  the  law  relating 
to  drawing-schools,  34;  collec- 
tion of  art  treasures  in,  119  ; im- 
plements of  study  provided  for 
pupils  by  city  of,  151. 

Bronze  statues,  modelling  of,  228. 

Building  and  accommodation  for 
art  study,  80. 

C. 

Cabinet-makers,  French,  237. 

Carpets,  importance  of,  in  furnish- 
ing a room,  210,  211. 

Carving,  ancient,  restoration  of, 
232 ; by  machinery,  221 ; stone, 
233. 

Casting-room,  103. 

Casting  and  casts,  244. 

Casts,  good  and  bad,  254 ; seams 
in,  255;  painting  of,  256. 

Chasing  in  metal,  228. 

393 


394 


INDEX. 


Chinese  art,  287. 

Christian  artists,  symbolism  of, 
287. 

Churches  and  cathedrals,  early, 
place  of,  288. 

Classic  and  Gothic  architecture, 
contest  between,  291. 

Classical  and  industrial  education, 
comparative  value  of,  5. 

Climate,  and  habits  of  people, 
should  decide  general  character 
of  building,  268. 

Cluny,  normal  school  at,  312. 

Coats-of-arms  of  ancient  families 
symbolical,  289. 

Cole,  Mr , at  the  bead  of  English 
schools  of  design,  19. 

Colors,  division  of,  181  ; architect- 
ural effect  of,  iu  buildings,  273. 

Conditions  of  success  in  an  art 
school,  157. 

Conduct  and  management  of 
schools  of  art,  144. 

Conservatory  for  art  buildings,  107. 

Corthele,  hall-chair  art,  231. 

Coventry  school,  88. 

“ Crocheting  Moses,”  209. 

Curtains,  designs  for,  200. 

D. 

Design,  the  second  step  in  civiliza- 
tion, 1 75  ; specimens  of  false  taste 
in,  180;  influence  of  color  in, 
180;  Greek,  litness  of,  184;  for 
furniture,  186 ; for  table-glass, 
186  ; naturalistic,  187 ; imita- 
tive, 1S7 ; symbolic  and  testhetic, 
187 ; power  to,  incommunicable, 
188;  scientific  knowledge  and 
observation  a preparation  for, 
189;  must  be  based  on  natural 
laws.  191. 

Designing-room,  104. 


Difficulty  of  illustrating  art  sub- 
jects, 192. 

Discipline,  necessity  of,  in  art 
schools,  158. 

Drawing,  place  of,  in  general  edu- 
cation, 9 ; in  the  public  schools, 
34  ; who  shall  teach  it,  44  ; from 
memory,  53. 

Duruy,  M.  establishes  a normal 
school  at  Cluny,  312. 

E. 

Ecole  Munieipale  do  Dessin  et  de 
Sculpture,  123. 

Economy,  false  and  true,  in  estab- 
lishing drawing-schools,  76. 

Education  of  the  sexes  in  mixed 
schools  desirable,  170. 

Educational  experience,  64. 

Egyptian  architecture,  286. 

Electrotypes  used  to  ornament  fur- 
niture, 237. 

Elementary  und  cast  drawing-room, 

100. 

Embroidery  and  needlework,  203. 

Encouragements  to  study,  149. 

England  discovers  her  deficiency  in 
art  education,  and  establishes  art 
schools,  15. 

English  and  French  plans  of  art  in- 
struction compared,  136. 

English  method  of  art  instruction, 
132. 

Exhibition  and  Antique  room  in 
art  schools,  1 1 5. 

F. 

Female  artists,  society  of,  166. 

Fitting  and  lighting  of  art  schools, 
96. 

Free-hand  outline  drawing,  50. 

French  art  commission  visit  Eng- 
land, 311. 


INDEX. 


395 


French  cabinet-makers,  237. 

French,  English,  and  German  sys- 
tems of  art  instruction,  special 
good  points  in  each,  141. 

French  municipal  schools,  122. 

Furniture,  wood-carving  in  modern, 
231.  • 

G. 

Gelatine  moulding,  252. 

Geometrical  drawing,  156. 

German  industrial  art  schools,  137. 

German  States,  education  in,  4. 

Glass,  Venetian,  modern  reproduc- 
tion of,  186. 

Good  and  bad  casts,  254. 

Gothic  and  classic  architecture,  con- 
test between,  291 . 

Grammar  schools,  drawing  in,  54. 

Greek  ornamentation,  184. 

H. 

Handiness,  general,  of  Americans, 
230. 

Handwork,  205. 

High  and  normal  schools,  drawing 
in,  57  ; model-drawing  in,  58  ; 
perspective  drawing  in,  59  ; draw- 
ing from  flowers  and  foliage,  60. 

I. 

Imitative  power  common  to  the  hu- 
man race,  46. 

Implements  of  study  provided  free, 
150. 

Individualism,  charm  of,  262. 

Industrial  art  education  a product 
of  ihe  present,  303. 

Influence  of  color  in  design,  180; 
of  dwellings  on  the  character  of 
their  inmates,  264 

Iron-work,  226. 

J. 

Jews,  symbolism  o>f  the,  294. 


K. 

Knole  chairs,  232. 

L. 

Lace,  making  of,  199. 

Ladies’  class-room  in  art  school, 
108. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  universal  genius 
of,  229. 

Lecture  theatre  in  art  school,  97. 

Leisure,  proper  use  of,  204. 

Lequien,  M.,  conductor  of  the  Eeole 
Municipale,  123. 

Library  and  museum  in  art  school, 
104. 

Light,  side,  and  top,  81  ; the  most 
valuable  for  art  study,  83. 

Lighting  of  picture-galleries  and  ex- 
hibition-rooms, 92. 

Lowell  Institute  Free  Drawing 
School,  115. 

M. 

Majolica  ware,  value  of,  236. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, 113. 

Massachusetts  State  exhibition  of 
drawing,  36. 

Massachusetts  State  Legislature, 
acts  of,  in  relation  to  drawing, 
1 1 , 40. 

Mat  and  basket  making,  198. 

Mechanical  and  architectural  draw- 
ing, 99. 

Mechanical  means,  use  of,  in  draw- 
ing, 65. 

Memory  drawing,  56. 

Methods  of  industrial  art  study, 
121  ; of  teaching  drawing,  47. 

Minton  Memorial  building,  89. 

Model  drawing  in  outline,  52  ; in 
grammar  schools,  54  ; in  high  and 
normal  schools,  58. 


396 


INDEX. 


Modelling  and  carving,  distinction 
between,  224. 

Modelling-room,  102. 

Mosaic,  revival  of,  280. 

Mouldings,  Egyptian,  Greek,  and 
Roman,  277. 

Moulds  and  casts,  methods  of  ob- 
taining, 255. 

Moulds,  waste,  245 ; piece,  248 ; 
wax,  250  ; gelatine,  252  ; sulphur, 
253. 

Muslin  and  lace  making,  199. 

N. 

National  School  of  Design,  New 
York,  113. 

Normal  Art  School,  Boston,  45. 

Nottingh  im  School,  87. 

Nuremberg,  industrial  school  at, 
139. 

O. 

Ornament  symbolic  and  atsthetic, 
treatment  of,  1S7  ; applied,  211. 

Ornamental  designs  in  form  and 
color,  173. 

P. 

Painting  of  casts,  256. 

Painting-room  in  art  school,  106. 

Papering  of  rooms,  209,  212. 

Perspective  in  high  and  normal 
schools,  59. 

Picture-rooms  and  exhibition  galler- 
ies, lighting  of,  92. 

Piece-moulding,  2 1. 

Philadelphia  school  of  design,  111. 

Plans  of  schools  of  art,  87. 

Plant  drawing-room  in  art  school, 
107. 

Plus  er  of  Paris  moulds,  225,  245. 

Playfair,  Dr.  Lyon,  on  art.  educa- 
tion in  Germany,  4. 

Pottery,  235 ; increase  in  the  value 
of,  236. 


Power  to  design  incommunicable, 
188. 

Pre-Raphaelitism,  establishment  of, 
292 

Primary  schools,  drawing  in,  50.. 

Prospect  and  retrospect,  295. 

Puritanism  averse  to  associating  i t 
with  religion,  278. 

R. 

Redgrave,  Mr.,  remarks  of,  on  pa- 
per-hangings, 212.. 

Regulations  concerning  teachers, 
151  ; student-;,  1 55. 

Relief  ornament,  220. 

Religions  pictures,  influence  of,  on 
the  peasantry  of  Europe,  300. 

Roman  art,  chief  characteristics  of, 
289. 

Ruskin,  extract  from  lectures  by 
305,  318. 


Sameness  in  forms  of  art  destruc- 
tive of  originality,  260 

Samplers,  marking  of,  205. 

Sandstone,  red.  handsome  effect  of, 
in  buildings,  271. 

Schools  of  art  and  industrial  draw- 
ing, 75. 

Science  and  art,  difference  between 
the  claims  of,  8. 

Science  schools  and  classes  in  Eng- 
land, 313. 

Seams  in  easts,  255. 

Sheepshanks  gallery’,  92. 

Smoothness  a quality’  essential  to 
beauty,  275. 

South  Kensington  Museum,  19,  22, 
29. 

Stages  of  study’  in  the  Ecole  Muni- 
cipale,  124. 

Stained  glass,  revival  of,  293. 

State  Director  of  Art  Education, 


INDEX. 


397 


duties  of,  2.3;  reason  for  appoint- 
ment, 41 . 

Statues  and  busts,  how  modelled, 
224. 

StQne-caxving,  233. 

Students,  regulations  concerning, 
155. 

Stud)',  range  of,  in  art  and  indus- 
trial drawing-classes,  78. 

Subject  of  instruction  in  art  schools, 
146. 

Suggestions  to  teachers,  and  use  of 
blackboard  illustrations,  61  ; in 
regard  to  management  of  schools 
ot  art,  144. 

Sulphur-moulding,  253. 

Symbolism  in  art  and  architecture, 
283. 

T. 

Teachers,  regulations  concerning, 
151 ; number  of,  required  in  an 
art  school,  153. 

Technological  Institute,  Boston, 
532. 

Telescopic  and  Microscopic  persons, 
296. 

Terra-cotta,  223,  239  ; indestructi- 
bility of,  240. 

Tests  of  design  in  ornament,  232. 

Time  spent  in  study  of  drawing  in 
different  countries,  156. 

Thompson,  Prof.,  on  the  advantage 
of  drawing  to  boys,  14. 


Toulouse  School  of  Industrial 
Science,  129. 

U. 

Universality  of  power  in  individu- 
als, 229. 

Use  and  beauty  in  architecture,  true 
position  of  each,  266. 

V. 

Variety  in  courses  of  drawing  de- 
sirable, 147. 

Veneering  a sham,  196. 

W. 

Wall-paper,  effect  of,  on  a sick  man. 

Ware,  Prof.,  on  the  value  of  draw- 
ing to  working-men,  15. 

Waste-moulds,  245. 

Wax-moulding,  250. 

Wedgewood  Memorial,  89. 

Women,  adaptation  of  art  study  to, 
161. 

Wood,  beauty  in  the  grain  of 
American,  197. 

Worcester  Free  Technical  Institute, 
114. 

Y. 

Yale  College,  art-education  in,  117. 

Yorkshire  manufacturing  town,  in- 
fluence of,  on  a Parisian  artist, 
304. 


398 


INDEX. 


INDEX  TO  APPENDIX. 


Appendix  I.  — Flat  Examples, 
Models,  and  Books. 

Copies  for  outline  drawing,  327. 
Copies  for  shaded  drawing,  328. 
Architectural  and  machine  draw- 
ing, 328. 

Colored  examples,  32S. 

Solid  models,  & c.,  328. 

Books,  &c.,  329. 

List  of  French  examples  chosen 
for  Boston  Normal  Art  School, 
329. 

Appendix  II.  — Casts  of  Figure, 
Ornament,  and  from  Nature. 

Casts  of  historical  ornament : — 
Greek,  330. 

Roman,  330. 

Renaissance,  331. 

Modem  Renaissance,  331. 
Gothic,  331. 

Byzantine,  331. 

Saracenic,  331. 

Casts  of  fruit,  &c.,-  from  nature, 
331. 

Casts  of  the  figure,  333. 

Cfists,  334. 

Reproductions  from  ancient 
marbles  &c.,  in  British  Mu- 
seum : — 

Egyptian  sculptures,  334. 
Assyrian  sculptures,  335. 

Greek  sculptures,  337. 

Elgin  saloon,  337. 

Grreci  -Roman  sculptors,  340. 
Miscellaneous,  343. 

Muse'e  imperial  dti  Louvre  : — 
Groupes  antiques,  343. 

Groupes  modemes,  344 
Statues  antiques,  344. 

Statues  tnodernes,  345. 


Fragments  de  statues  et  torses, 
346. 

Statuettes  antiques,  346. 
Statuettes  modemes,  347. 
Bustes  antiques,  347. 

Bustes  modemes,  348. 
Bas-reliefs  antiques,  351. 
Bas-reliefs  modernes,  353. 
Casts,  where  procurable,  354. 

Appendix  III.  — Examination  Pa- 
pers. 

Examination  papers  English 
Science  and  Art  Department, 
356. 

Examination  papers  South  Ken- 
sington, 358. 

Appendix  IV.  — Programmes  of 
Schools  of  Art. 

American  schools  of  designs  : — 
New  York  National  Academy 
of  Design,  361. 

New  York  Cooper  Union  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science 
and  Art,  363. 

Boston  tree  evening  classes  for 
the  study  of  industrial  draw- 
ing, 365 

Lowell  Institute.  Boston,  366. 
Yale  School  of  Fine  Arts,  366. 
Philadelphia  School  of  Design 
for  Women,  367. 

English  School : — 

English  National  Art  Training 
School  in  London,  369. 
French  School : — 

£cole  Municipale  de  Dessin  et 
dc  Sculpture,  374 
German  School : — 

Industrial  School  of  Art  at 
Nuremberg,  376 


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